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VETERINARY STUDIES 



FOR 



AGRICULTURAL STUDENTS 



BY 



M. H. REYNOLDS, B. S. A., D.V.M., M. D. 

Professor of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota; 

member American Veterinary Medical Association; 

member American Medical Association; member 

American Public Health Association; 

member Minnesota State 

Medical Association 



ST. PAUL 

PUBLISHED BY THE AUTHOR 

ST. ANTHONY PARK, MINN, 

1903 



? 






THE UftRARY OF 



CONGRESS, 

TWO CoPlfig RfcCEIVEB 

I L'U; „ ^-.iv 



H- 



copy a 



COPYRIGHT 1903 

BY MYRON H. REYNOLDS, 

UNITED STATES AND CANADA. 



03 






PREFACE. 



During ten years experience in teaching veterinary subjects 
to agricultural student's, certain difficulties have been constantly 
encountered. Others doing this work have probably had similar 
experience. There has been the difficulty of imperfect training, 
or entire lack of training, in physiology and other subjects which 
medical men recognize as fundamental. There is always pres- 
ent the difficulty of presenting a technical subject in untechnical 
language ; difficulty in securing satisfactory illustrations, and dif- 
ficulty in giving the kind and character of veterinary work which 
is generally demanded and conceded as necessary, without giving 
our students a sort of training which will turn some of them into 
unqualified practitioners. There has been serious difficulty in 
covering, without a text book, a satisfactory amount of ground. 
Many students do not take notes well, and hence for several years 
I have been distributing mimeographed lecture notes to my 
classes. 

During this time I have been more and more impressed with 
the belief that a text book, wisely illustrated and carefully edited 
for its legitimate use, would enable me to cover very much more 
ground within the available time. 

The style of editing that has been adopted was selected with 
a view to presenting the subject matter to students in a conspicu- 
ous and easily grasped way. This must be our excuse and answer 
to criticism which the expert printer may legitimately make. 

This work has been written more particularly as a text for 
veterinary classes in agricultural colleges, but it is hoped that it 
may prove helpful also to stockmen who are not able to attend 
our agricultural colleges, but who care to know more of the ani- 
mal machines with which they are working. I take this occasion 
to deprecate the blind home dosing of stock to which farmers and 
stockmen are very much inclined. The student should realize 



the impossibility of writing a prescription that will fit all cases 
of a certain disease, and if a good student he will hesitate to risk 
the use of medicines of which he knows very little in diseases of 
which he knows less. 

Lecture notes which have been collected during a period of 
ten years have formed the basis for this work, and I am now un- 
able, in many cases, to give credit to authorities that have been 
consulted, where credit is fairly due. 

Illustrations have not been used in any case merely as 
pictures. Every one is intended to illustrate something and make 
that illustration as impressive as possible. 

Suggestions to the teacher. It is not intended that this, as 
a text book, should entirely supplant the lecture work. On the 
contrary, nearly every lecture may be supplemented to advantage 
and so give opportunity for originality and the greatest effective- 
ness. It will be readily understood that certain subjects are of 
very great importance in some states, and unimportant in others. 
Each teacher should add what he thinks best for his grade of pu- 
pils and his local needs. 

When time permits much time can be profitably spent on 
more extended anatomy work, especially for students who wish 
advanced live stock work. It can be readily illustrated and easily 
impressed ; for instance, that smooth or rough hips depend upon a 
fraction of an inch, more or less, on the external angle of the 
ilium; and that high or low withers are merely slight variations 
in the length of the superior spinus processes of the dorsal ver- 
tebrae; and that conformation depends upon the bony skeleton 
and muscular developments. 

Much time with considerable actual practice should be given 
to the study of unsoundness ; to common forms of lameness, and 
the types of conformation which tend toward these unfortunate 
conditions. Common irregularities of the teeth are not discussed 
in these pages at all, and yet the general subject is an important 
and practical one, and one that is easily illustrated in class room. 
These are given merely as suggestions and to impress the fact 
that this text is not expected to cover the entire field of veterinary 
teaching for all agricultural colleges. 

I respectfully suggest that teachers should insist upon care- 
ful study of illustrations. In my own class work I find the con- 
stant difficulty that students glance at the illustrations carelessly 



and hurriedly, and thus fail to get the benefit which they might 
easily have from good illustrations. Students may be selected at 
random and asked to draw upon the board from memory, illus- 
trations from the lesson for that day. After a few practice les- 
sons of this kind students easily learn how to study text book 
illustrations. 

M. H. REYNOLDS. 
University of Minnesota, July, 1903. 



CONTENTS. 



ANATOMY. 

I^ecture. Page. 

I, ANATOMY. 

Bones. — Kinds, peculiarities, development, composition. 
Head. — Face, cranial and hyoid bones; dentition of horses, 
table; dentition of cattle, table; estimating age by teeth. 9 

II. OSTEOLOGY. 

Spinal column. — General characteristics of vertebrae. Cer- 
vical, dorsal, lumbar, sacral and coccygeal vertebrae. 
Sternum. Ribs 13 

III. FRONT LIMB. 

Shoulder, arm, forearm, and foot — bones of 16 

IV. POSTERIOR LIMB. 

Pelvis, thigh, leg, and foot — bones of 19 

V. ARTICULATIONS. 

General groups, examples; varieties of freely movable; 

immovable; slightly movable. 
Structures at joints; articulations described 23. 

VI. MUSCULAR SYSTEM. 

Peculiar property of muscle; kinds, classification, parts,, 
microscopic structure. Source of heat and power 26 

VII. NERVOUS SYSTEM. 

General function; nerve centers; nerve fibers. 
Cerebrospinal system. — Brain, cranial nerves, spinal cord. 

spinal nerves . 
Sympathetic system. — Composition, ganglia, sympathetic 

nerves 30 



vi CONTENTS. 

Lecture. Page. 

VIII. CIRCULATION. 

Blood. — Circulatory apparatus; course of the blood, blood 

supply of the body, principal arteries and veins. 
Lymphatic system. — Parts, function ;^6 

IX. RESPIRATION. 

Definition, stages, purpose, respiratory apparatus 41 

X. DIGESTIVE APPARATUS. 

Definition, organs of digestion, anatomy of each 45 

XI. . PHYSIOLOGY OF DIGESTION. 

Definition of digestion; food-groups, course and history of 

each . 
Suggestions in regard to feeding 50 

XII. URINARY ORGANS AND MAMMARY GLANDS. 

Urinary organs. — Structure, function and physiological op- 
eraton of each. 

Mammary glands. — Anatomy, function, products, blood sup- 
ply, nerve supply, and nerve control 54 

XIII. FOOT. 

Bones, horny hoof, matrix, plantar cushion, back tendons, 
good foot described 60 



PATHOLOGY. 

XIV. PATHOLOGY. 

Hyperaemia (congestion), inflammation, fever, heat pro- 
duction and expenditure 65 

XV. PATHOLOGY. 

Haemorrhage, dropsy, hypertrophy, atrophy, degenera- 
tions and infiltrations, collapse, syncope, death 69 

XVI. WOUNDS. 

Healing, and development of new blood vessels. 
Healing of osseous, cartilage and nerve tissues. New tis- 
sue. How skin recovers a surface 72 



CONTENTS. vii 

Lecture. Page. 

XVII. WOUNDS. 

Bad treatment, bleeding, sewing, bandaging, washing, dry 
treatment, maggots, suggestions 75 



CAUSE AND PREVENTION. 

XVIII. CAUSES AND PREVENTION OF DISEASE. 

Contagium. — The individual bacterium, plagues in history, 
dissemination, development of outbreaks, body entrance, 
method of injury, destroyed in nature 78 

XIX. DISINFECTION. 

Purpose, sources of infection, thoroughness, attendants, 
how to burn a carcass. Common disinfectants, and 
methods of disinfecton 82 

XX. CAUSES AND PREVENTION OF DISEASE. 

Heredity. — Theory, in and in breeding. 
Air. — Impurities, relation to disease, standards of purity, 
ventilation 85 

XXI. CAUSES AND PREVENTION OF DISEASE. 

Food. — Excess, deficiency, bulk, quality, balance, intervals, 

parasites, changes- 
Water. — Excess, deficiency, parasites, sewage, intervals. ... 88 

XXII. CAUSES AND PREVENTION OF DISEASE. 

Parasitism. — General classes, how nourished, effect on host, 

general prevention, general treatment. 
External parasites. — Mite diseases, causes, classification, 

general treatment, general prevention 91 

XXIII. EXTERNAL PARASITES. 

Lice, ticks, ringworm. 

Internal parasites. — Bots, round worms, tape worms, treat- 
ment 95 

XXIV. STOCK POISONING. 

Miscellaneous causes . 

Poisonous plants. — General considerations, general groups. 
Sorghum, equisetum, wild cherry leaves 99 



viii CONTENTS. 

Lecture. Page. 

XXV. POISONOUS PLANTS. 

Wooly loco, stemless loco, rattlebox, water hemlock, Ore- 
gon water hemlock 102 

XXVI. POISONOUS PLANTS. 

Poison hemlock, broad leaf laurel, death cama or lobelia, 

larkspur. 
General treatment for plant poisoning 105 

XXVII. VENTILATION. 

Purposes, impurities, necessity of, natural forces at work, 
air currents, inlets and outlets 109 

XXVIII. . VENTILATION. 

Amount of ventilation needed. 

Stable construction.- — Space needed per animal, location, 
width, windows, shafts and tubes, Sheringham valve .... 11.3 



COMMON DISEASES. 

XXIX. ACTINOMYCOSIS. 

Description, relation to public health, parts involved, 
treatment 117 

XXX. ANTHRAX. 

History, distribution, susceptible animals, cause, trans- 
mission, introduction and spread, incubation, symp- 
toms, post-mortem, diagnosis, treatment 122 

XXXI. SYMPTOMATIC ANTHRAX (BLACK LEG). 

Definition, cause, symptoms, post-mortem, prevention. 127 

XXXII FOOT AND MOUTH DISEASE. 

Definition, symptoms, dissemination, prevention, treat- 
ment 129 

XXXIII. GLANDERS. 

Susceptible animals, causes, incubation, symptoms, 
acute cases, chronic cases, diagnosis, prevention, 
treatment 131 



CONTENTS. ix 

Lecture. Page. 

XXXIV. HAEMORRHAGIC SEPTICAEMIA. 

Etiology, history and development, symptoms, post- 
mortem, summary, meningeal type. 

Brief study by table of haemorrhagic septicaemia, an- 
thrax, symptomatic anthrax and cerebrospinal men- 
ingitis 136 

XXXV. TEXAS FEVER. 

Economic importance, causes, transmission, suscepti- 
bility, incubation, symptoms, post-mortem, prognosis, 
treatment, prevention, tick extermination, preventive 
inoculation 143 

XXXVI. TUBERCULOSIS. 

Prevalence, cause, modes of infection, structures af- 
fected, symptoms, diagnosis, treatment, prevention, 
summary, disposition of tuberculous cattle 150 

XXXVII. TUBERCULIN TEST. 

Tuberculin, effect on health, accuracy, method of test, 
importance to breeders, diagnosis 156 

XXXVIII. AZOTURIA. 

Prevalence, history, parts affected, duration, causes, 
symptoms, prevention, treatment, prognosis 160 

XXXIX. LYMPHANGITIS AND HEAVES. 

Lymphangitis. — Definition, cause and history, symptoms, 
prevention, treatment 

Heaves. — Definition, cause, symptoms, prevention, post- 
mortem, treatment 165 

XL. CHOKE. 

Explanation, symptoms, prevention, treatment 168 

XLI. HOVEN OR BLOAT. 

Definition, causes, symptoms, treatment, prevention... 171 

XLII. LAMENESS. 

Definition, locating the lameness 174 

From bony diseases. — Bony growths, splints, spavins, 

ring bones, side bones, etc. 
From synovial membranes. — Wind puffs, bog spavins, 

thoroughpins, open joint, curb, capped hock 174 



Lecture. 
XLIII. 



XLIV. 



XLV. 



XLVI. 



XL VI I. 



XLVIII. 



XLIX. 



L. 



LI. 



CONTENTS. 

Page. 
SOUNDNESS. 

Unsoundness. — Definition, normal conditions; methods 
of examination, common forms of unsoundness 179 

LAMINITIS OR FOUNDER. 

Definition, symptoms, cause, pathology, termination, 
treatment 184 

PARTURIENT PARALYSIS (MILK FEVER). 

Causes, Schmidt theory, symptoms, prevention, treat- 
ment, prognosis 187 

SAND COLIC. 
Parts involved, causes, symptoms, diagnosis, treatment 192 

SHEEP SCAB. 

General history, how spread, varieties, causes, symp- 
toms, precautions, treatment, dips and dipping, a 
small dipping vat 194 

NODULE DISEASE OF SHEEP. 

General history, cause, injury, diagnosis, treatment, 
prevention 202 

STOMACH WORM (SHEEP). 

Parasite, life history, symptoms, treatment. Drenching 
sheep 205 

FOOT ROT OF SFIEEP. 

Symptoms, differential diagnosis, simple foot-rot, treat- 
ment, preventon 208 

VERMINOUS BRONCHITIS, NASAL GRUB, 
AND CATARRH. 

Verminous bronchitis. — Definition, life history of parasite, 

symptoms, treatment, prevention. 
Nasal grub. — Cause, life history, symptoms, treatment. 
Catarrh. — Simple catarrh defined, causes, prevention, 
treatment 211 



CONTENTS. 



Lecture. 

LII. 



Page. 



LIII. 



HOG CHOLERA AND SWINE PLAGUE. 



Definition, swill-barrel cholera, variations in virulence, 
early symptoms, hog cholera post-mortem; swine 
plague post-mortem 

Cause, germs how scattered, practical differences be- 
tween hog cholera and swine plague. When an out- 
break appears, common mistakes, suggestions, disin- 
fection 215 

COMMON DISEASES OF SWINE. 

Rheumatism, posterior paralysis, congestion of the 
lungs, quinsy — cause, symptoms, treatment of each. 
Drenching swine 224 



OBSTETRICS. 

LIV. OBSTETRICS. 

Organs described, normal periods of gestation. 
Accidents of pregnancy. — Sporadic abortions, infectious 
abortions, preventive treatment, symptoms, results... 227 

LV. OBSTETRICS. 

Accidents of pregnancy. — Retention of foetus, volvulus 
or twist. 
. Accidents of parturition. — Germ infection, inflammation 
of the uterus, retention of the afterbirth, haemorrhage 231 

LVI. OBSTETRICS. 

Difficult parturition, nature's plan, normal presenta- 
tions, causes of difficulty, common faulty presenta- 
tions, aid, suggestions, various operations, Caesarian 
section 234 



MEDICINES. 

LVII. COMMON MEDICINES. 

Common measurements; giving medicines. Common 
medicines, as to physiological effects, doses and uses. 239 

LVIII. COMMON MEDICINES. 

Certain common medicines as to physiological effects, 
doses and uses 243 



ILLUSTRATIONS. 



Number. Page. 

1. Skeleton of the Horse B. A. I. Frontispiece 

2. Horse's Skull Chauveau g 

3. Six Years, Lower Jaw Clarke 10 

4. Eight Years, Lower Jaw Clarke 10 

5. Twenty Years, Lower Jaw Clarke 11 

6. Grinding Surface of Molars Huidekoper 11 

7. Typical Cervical Vertebra Chauveau 13 

8. Typical Dorsal Vertebra Chauveau 13 

9. Typical Lumbar Vertebra Chauveau 15 

10. Lateral View of Sacrum Chauveau 15 

11. Anterior Limb of Horse Chauveau 17 

12. Posterior Limb of Horse Chauveau 20 

13. Voluntary Muscle Reynolds 26 

14. Muscle Fibers Hewes 2.7 

15. Nerve Cell and Nerve Fiber after Chauveau 30 

16. Cerebrospinal Nervous System Mignin 32 

17. Spinal Cord and Brain in Diagram Reynolds 34 

18. Relation of the Sympathetic and Cerebrospinal 

Systems Chauveau 35 

19. Circulation, General View Mignin 38 

20. Circulation, D'iagramatic 1 Reynolds, 2 after Overton 40 

21. Respiration in Diagram Reynolds 42 

22. Stomach of a Horse, External and Internal Views. .Chauveau 46 

23. Stomach of a Cow after Chauveau 48 

24. Section of Horse's Kidney Chauveau 54 

25. Urinary Apparatus in Diagram Reynolds 56 

26. One Quarter and Teat of Cow's Udder Thanhoffer 58 

27. Milk Vesicles and Outlet Ducts Chauveau 58 

28. Bones of a Hotse's Foot Chauveau 60 

29. The Hoof Chauveau 62 

30. The Hoof Matrix Chauveau 63 

31. Badly Treated Wire Wound Reynolds 76 

32. General Groups of Bacteria Reynolds 80 

33. Mange Mite Newman 93 

34. Cattle Louse Newman 93 

35. Sheep Tick and Enlarged Probosis Newman 95 

36. Horse Bot Fly and Larva Ncuman 96 

37. Horse Bots and Bot Fly B.A.I. 97 

38. Common Tape Worm of Sheep Curtice 98 



xiv ILLUSTRATIONS. 

Number. Page. 

39. Poisonous Plants Chestnut 103 

40. Poisonous Plants Chestnut 106 

41. Ventilation Paige no 

42. Ventilation .. Paige n 1 

43. Ventilation Paige 114 

44. Ventilation Paige 115 

45. Actinomycosis Reynolds 118 

46. Actinomycosis , Reynolds 119 

47. Actinomycosis Reynolds 120 

48. Bacterium (Bacillus) Anthracis Reynolds 123 

49. Glanders — Farcy Reynolds 132 

50. Glanders — Farcy Reynolds 133 

51. Glanders — Fai cy Reynolds 134 

52. Haemorrhagic Septicaemia Reynolds 137 

53. Haemorrhagic Septicaemia Reynolds 138 

54. Haemorrhagic Septicaemia Reynolds 139 

55. Haemorrhagic Septicaemia Reynolds 140 

56. Texas Fever Tick Pettit 145 

57. Bovine Tuberculosis Reynolds 151 

58. Bovine Tuberculosis Reynolds 152 

59. Bovine Tuberculosis Reynolds 153 

60. Bovine Tuberculosis Reynolds 154 

61. For Relieving Choke Reynolds 168 

62. Trocar and Canula 171 

63. Where to Tap for Hoven Reynolds 172 

64. Ringbones Reynolds 175 

65. Sidebones Reynolds 177 

66. Spavins, Two Types Reynolds 180 

67. Navicular Disease Reynolds 182 

68. A Foundered Hoof B.A.I. 185 

69. Parturient Paralysis — Milk Fever Reynolds 188 

70. Parturient Paralysis Reynolds 189 

71. Parturient Paralysis Fleming 190 

72. A Plain Case of Sheep Scab 196 

73. Sheep Scab Mites Lugger and Curtice 198 

74. Nodule Disease Reynolds 203 

75. Foot Rot of Sheep Williams 208 

76. Sheep Gad Fly Brauer 212 

77. Hog Cholera — Swine Plague Reynolds 216 

78. Hog Cholera — Swine Plague Reynolds 217 

79. Hog Cholera — Swine Plague Reynolds 2 [9 

80. Hog Cholera — Swine Plague Reynolds 222 

81. Generative Organs of the Mare Fleming 228 

82. Bovine Foetus and Foetal Membranes Fleming 229 

83. Bovine Cotyledons Fleming 232 

84. Obstetrical Presentations B. A. I. 236 

85. Holding Horse's Head for Drenching Reynolds 240 

86. To Throw Cattle Reynolds 244 



INDEX. 



Page. 

Abortion 229 

Accidents of parturition 232 

Of pregnancy 229 

Actinomycosis 117 

Relation to public health 117 

Prevention of 118 

Treatment of 119 

Air, in relation to disease , 86 

Impurities in 86 

Currents in 

Alcohol 83, 240 

Aloes 240 

Ammonia gas 87 

Anthrax 122 

Modes of transmission 122 

Infection 123 

Spread of 123 

Symptoms 124 

Post-mortem 126 

Apparatus, circulatory ^6 

Aragallus 102 

Arm 16 

Articulations 23 

Varieties of 23 

Structures at 24 

Motions at, kinds of 25 

Arteries, principal 37 

Astragalus 102 

Atrophy yo 

Azoturia 160 

Causes 160 

Symptoms 161 

Prevention 162 

Treatment 162 

Bacteria 78 

Description of 78 

How scattered 79 ' 

Method cf infection 80 ■ 

Injury by 80 

Destroyed in nature 80 

Classification of 80 



xvi INDEX. 

Page. 

Black leg 127 

Bladder 56 

Bloat 171 

Blood 36 

Blood vessels, new development of 73 

Bog spavin 178 

Bones 9 

Kinds 9 

Peculiarities 10 

Development n 

Composition 11 

Bots 96 

Boracic acid 240 

Brain 31 

Circulation, pulmonary 37 

Systemic 37 

Cama 107 

Carbohydrates 5° 

Carcass, to burn 83 

Cartilage, healing of . 73 

Caesarian section 238 

Carbolic acid 83, 241 

Carbon dioxide gas 86 

Capped hock 178 

Catarrh, sheep 213 

Cause 213 

Prevention 214 

Treatment . . . . ' 214 

Cerebrospinal system 3 1 

Chloroform 241 

Cherry leaves, poisonous 100 

Choke 168 

Symptoms 168 

Treatment 169 

Cicuta 104 

Circulation 36 

Collapse 7 1 

Congestion 65 

Congestion of the lungs 225 

Conium 105 

Contagium 78 

Creolin 83 

Crotalaria 103 

Curb 178 

Death 71 

Degenerations 7° 



INDEX. xvii 

Page. 

Delphinium 107 

Dentition, cattle 12 

Horse 12 

Digestive apparatus 45 

Disinfection 82 

Purpose of 82 

Thoroughness of 82 

By heat 84 

Disinfectants 83 

Drenching 239 

Dropsy 69 

Embryotomy 237 

Epsom salts 243 

Equiseturn poisoning 100 

Fallopian tubes 227 

Farcy 133 

Fever 66 

Cause 66 

Symptoms 67 

Kinds 67 

Results 67 

Food groups 50 

Food as cause of disease 88 

Foot, anterior 16 

Good 63 

Posterior 21 

Foot rot 208 

Symptoms 208 

Differential diagnosis 208 

Treatment 209 

Foot and mouth disease 129 

Symptoms 129 

Prevention 130 

Virus, how scattered 130 

Treatment 130 

Forearm 16 

Formalin 83 

Founder 184 

Gestation, normal periods of 229 

Glands, mammary 57 

Function of 57 

Products 57 

Blood supply of 58 

Nerve supply of 59 

Glands, salivary 45 

Glanders U 1 



xviii INDEX. 

Page. 

Grub in head 212 

Cause 213 

History of parasite 213 

Symptoms 213 

Treatment 213 

Haemorrhage 69 

Haemorrhagic septicaemia 136 

Cause 136 

Symptoms 136 

Post-mortem 137 

Meningial type 138 

Differential diagnosis 140 

Head 11 

Heart 36 

Heat, source of 28 

Heaves 166 

Cause 166 

Symptoms . 166 

Prevention 167 

Hemlock, Oregon water 104 

Hemlock, water 104 

Hemlock, poison 105 

Heredity 85 

Hog cholera — swine plague 215 

Definition 215 

Virulence 215 

Symptoms 216 

Post-mortem .. : 217-218 

Cause of 218 

How scattered 219 

Disinfection for 222 

Hoof 6t 

Hoven I7 1 

Causes I7 1 

Symptoms I7 1 

Treatment 172 

Prevention 173 

Hydrocarbons 5 1 

Hyperaemia 65 

Hypertrophy 69 

In and in breeding 85 

Infiltrations 70 

Inflammation 65 

Causes of 66 

Terminations 66 

Of uterus 232 



• INDEX. xix 

Page. 

Intestines, small 47 

Structure of 47 

Large 49 

Iodoform 242 

Kalmia 105 

Kidneys 54 

Function of 55 

Lameness 174 

From synovial membranes 177 

Location of 174 

From bone diseases 175 

Laminitis 184 

Symptoms 184 

Cause 184 

Termination 185 

Treatment 185 

Larkspur 107 

Larynx 42 

Laurel, broad leaf 105 

Leg 19 

Lice 95 

Limb, anterior 16 

Posterior 19 

Lime 242 

Liver 48 

Lungs 42 

Lymphangitis 165 

Symptoms 165 

Treatment 39 

Lymphatic system 39 

Function of 40 

Medicines, common 239 

Milk fever 187 

Mite diseases 93 

Mites, varieties of 93, 198 

Morphine 246 

Mouth 45 

Muscles 26 

Voluntary 26 

Varieties of 26, 27 

Structure of 28 

Involuntary 28 

Muscular system 25 

Nasal grub 212 

Nematodes 96 

Nerves, cranial t,^ 



xx INDEX. 

Page. 

Restoration of 73 

Spinal 33 

Sympathetic 35 

Nerve fibers, varieties of 31 

Nervous system 30 

Nodule disease 202 

Cause 202 

Treatment 203 

Prevention 204 

Obstetrics 227 

Oil, linseed 243 

Oesophagus 46 

Open joint 178 

Opium 245 

Osseous tissue, healing of 73 

Osteology 9 

Ovaries 227 

Palate, hard 45 

Soft 45 

Pancreas 48 

Parasitism 91 

Parasites 91 

Varieties of 91 

Sources of 91 

Classes of 91 

How nourished 92 

Effect on host 92 

General prevention 92 

General treatment 92 

External 93, 95 

Internal 96 

Parturition, difficult 234 

Accidents of 232 

Parturient paralysis 187 

Causes 187 

Symptoms 187 

Prevention 188 

Treatment 189 

Pathology 65 

Pelvis 19 

Pharynx 42 

Plantar cushion 62 

Poisonous plants 99, 108 

Groups of 99 

General treatment for 108 

Poisoning 99 



INDEX. xxi 

Page. 

Posterior paralysis 224 

Power, source of 28 

Pregnancy, accidents of 229 

Presentations, normal 234 

Common faulty 234 

Proteids 51 

Quinsy, swine 226 

Rattle box 103 

Respiration 41 

Stages 41 

Apparatus 41 

Rheumatism, swine 224 

Cause of 224 

Symptoms ■. 224 

Treatment 224 

Ribs 15 

Ringbone 176 

Ringworm 96 

Salt 243 

Saltpetre 245 

Sand colic 192 

Causes 192 

Organs involved 192 

Symptoms 192 

Scab, sheep 194 

Body scab 194 

Foot scab 195 

Head scab 195 

Prevention 196 

Symptoms 197 

Scab mites, varieties of 198 

Treatment 199 

Dipping for 200 

Schmidt treatment 190 

Sheep, giving medicine to 206 

Sheep scab 194 

Sheringham windows 115 

Shoulder 16 

Sidebone 176 

Skin, healing of 74 

Sodium hyposulphite 244 

Sorghum, poisoning 100 

Soundness 179 

Examination for 180 

Spavin 176 

Spinal column 13 

Spinal cord 3 5 



xxii INDEX. 

Page. 

Splints 175 

Stable construction 113 

Location of 113 

Stemless loco 102 

Sternum 15 

Stomach 47 

Stomach worm 205 

Life history of 205 

Treatment of 205 

Strongylus contor tus 205 

Sulphur 84 

Sunshine 84, 87 

Sweet spirits of nitre 245 

Swill barrel cholera 216 

Swine plague 215 

Symptomatic anthrax 127 

Cause 127 

Symptoms 127 

Post-mortem 127 

Treatment 128 

Sympathetic system 34 

Syncope 7 1 

Tape worms 97 

Tendons, back 52 

Texas fever 143 

Cause 143 

Symptoms 144 

Post-mortem 145 

Tick, extermination of 147 

Inoculation for 148 

Thigh 19 

Thoroughpins 178 

Ticks 95 

Tongue . 45 

Tuberculin 156 

Effect on cattle 156 

Test . . 157 

Reaction 159 

Tuberculous cattle, disposition of 155 

Tuberculosis 150 

Cause 150 

Symptoms 151 

Prevention 153 

Turpentine 245 

Unsoundness, common forms of 183 

Ureters 55 



INDEX. xxiii 

Page. 

"Urethra 57 

Urinary organs 54 

Uterus 227 

Vagina 227 

Veins, principal 39 

Ventilation 87, 109 

Natural forces no 

Air currents in 

Amount of air needed 1 1.3 

Verminous bronchitis 211 

Parasitic cause of 211 

Symptoms 211 

Treatment 212 

Vertebrae 13 

Volvulus 231 

Water, as cause of disease 89 

Wind puffs 178 

Wooly loco 102 

Wounds 72, 75 

Healing of 7 2 

Treatment of 75 

Maggots in 77 



VETERINARY STUDIES. 



LECTURE I. 

ANATOMY. 

Definition. — Science which treats of forms, structures and 
relations of body organs. These organs are divided for study 
into groups as follows : Bones, muscles, joints, nervous system, 
circulatory apparatus, respiratory apparatus, urinary apparatus, 
and digestive apparatus. 




FIG. 2. HORSE'S SKULL. 

1, Premaxillary bone; 2, upper incisors; 3, upper canine teeth; 4, superior 
maxillary bone; 7, nasal bones; 8, lachrymal bone; 11, malar bone; 12, upper 
molar teeth; 13, frontal bone; 15, temporal bone; 16, parietal bone; 17, occip- 
ital; 20, styloid processes; 24, parietal crest: 25, inferior maxilla; 26, inferior 
molars; 28, inferior canine teeth; 29, inferior incisor teeth. 



OSTEOLOGY, BONES. 

Kinds. — Bones are classified as long, short, flat, and irregular. 

Long bones, more or less elongated in form, medullary canal 
in shaft, found in limbs ; example — humerus, femur, radius, and 
tibia. 

Vet. Studies— 1. 



10 



ANATOMY. 



The short bones are usually short in form, as the name im- 
plies. They have no medullary canal ; example — carpals and tar- 
sals. 

Flat bones are those like the bones of the skull and the ribs, 
which consist of two plates of hard bony tissue connected by 
spongy bone. 




FIG. 3. SIX YEARS, LOWER JAW. 




FIG. 4. EIGHT YEARS, UPPER JAW. 
Note.— Figures 4 and 5 are drawn on different scales. 



Irregular bones are usually found in the median line ; example 
— vertebrae. 

Peculiarities. —Used in describing and recognizing bones are : 
Elevations, depressions, borders, surfaces, angles, and extremities. 



BONES AND HEAD. 



11 



Development. —Bones develop either in cartilage or membrane. 
The long leg bones develop from cartilage; the flat skull bones 
develop from membrane. 

Composition. — Normal bone of mature animals contains about 
one-third animal matter, and two-thirds mineral matter. Animal 
matter gives elasticity, the mineral matter gives firmness and 
strength. 




FIG. 5. TWENTY YEARS, LOWER JAW. 




B 




FIG. 6. GRINDING SURFACES OF MOLARS. 
Horse six to seven years old. A, right hand superior molars; B, left hand 
inferior molars. 

Groups. — Bones are divided into the following groups for 
study : Head, spinal column, sternum, ribs, front limb, hind limb. 

Head. — 26 bones; cranium 9, hyoid 1, face 16. 
. Cranium 9; occipital 1, frontal 2, parietal 2, temporal 2, eth- 
moid 1, sphenoid 1. 

Hyoid 1. 

Face 16; superior maxillary 2, inferior maxillary 1, premax- 
illary, 2 ; palate, 2 ; malar, 2 ; lachrymal, 2 ; nasal, 2 ; vomer, 1 ; in- 
ferior turbinated, 2. 



12 



ANATOMY. 



Teeth. — Mares have on each jaw : 6 incisors and 12 molars, 
or in all 18. Geldings and stallions have, in addition, 2 canines 
or tushes, making 20 teeth on each jaw. All the incisors and the 
first three molars are temporary and are replaced. The last three 
come in as permanent teeth, according to the following table. 

Cattle have 8 incisors on the lower jaw and none on the upper. 
Their molars are like those of horses in number and the first three 
are also temporary. 

DENTITION OF HORSES. (Chauveau.) 



KIND 


NUMBER 


WHEN APPEAR 


WHEN REPLACED 


i 


Middle, 


Birth 


2£ years. 
3i years. 
4| years. 


Incisors -j 


6 to 9 months 

Birth 


Canines 


r 

1 


1st 


2| years. 
2| years. 
3i years. 


2d 


Birth 

Birth 




3d 


Molars \ 


4th 


10 to 12 months... 
4 to 5 years 








5th 






6th 











Age of horses by the teeth. — Tell by shedding and appearance of 
the teeth up to 4 years, according to table. Cups wear out of center pair 
of incisors of lower jaw at about 6 years; cups wear out of middle 
pair of incisors at about 7 years; and cups wear out of corner incisors 
at about 8; cups wear out of center incisors of upper jaw at 8, middle 
pair at 9, and corner incisors at about 10. Quality of the teeth, kind 
of food and the way the teeth fit together to be considered. They may 
wear very unevenly and be very deceptive. The upper incisors are 
much less reliable as to disappearance of cups than are the lower. 

DENTITION OF CATTLE. (Chauveau.) 



KIND 


NAME OR 
NUMBER 


WHEN APPEAR 


WHEN REPLACED 


{ 


2d 


Birth 


H years. 
2i years. 
3| years. 
4| years. 
l\ years. 
2| years. 
3£ years. 


1 


Birth 

14 days 




3d 


f 


1st 


14 to 21 davs 

Birth 

Birth 


2d 

3d 


1 


Birth 


Molars -| 


4th 


2-i years 




Permanent. 


| 


5th 

6th 


Permanent. 


I 


4 to 5 years 


Permanent. 







LECTURE II. 



OSTEOLOGY. 



Spinal column. — This consists of about 52 pieces, called ver- 
tebrae. There are 7 cervical, 18 dorsal, 6 lumbar, 5 sacral, 15 
to 18 coccygeal. 

There are certain general characteristics possessed by all ver- 
tebrae, regardless of location in the spinal column ; for instance, 
each vertebra has a body, arch and spinal canal. 

The body is convex in front and concave behind. The head 
of the body of each vertebra is rounded and fits perfectly into the 
cavity of the rear end of the preceding vertebra. Between each 
pair is considerable cartilage, which serves the purpose of an elastic 
pad. 




FIG. 7. TYPICAL CERVICAL 
VERTEBRA. 

A, Head; B, transverse process; 
C, articular process; D, superior 
spinous process. 




FIG. 8. TYPICAL DORSAL VER- 
TEBRA, FRONT VIEW. 
1, Head; 2, superior spinous pro- 
cess; 3, transverse process. 



The arch is composed of the following parts : ( I ) The ped- 
icles or stalks. These are the more or less narrowed portions of 
the arch which attach to the body on each side. (2) The laminae 
are. the wider portions immediately above the pedicles on each side. 
(3) The transverse processes are the portions which project hori- 
zontally on each side from the arch. (4) The superior spinous 
process projects upward from the top of the arch. ( 5) The artic- 
ular processes are four in number: two in front, and two behind. 
The former articulate with the posterior articular processes of the 



14 ANATOMY. 

preceding vertebra, and the latter with the anterior processes of 
the succeeding. 

The body and arch develop from different centers of ossifi- 
cation. 

Cervical vertebrae. — There are seven cervical vertebrae, all 
agreeing in certain general characters. The body is long, thick 
and has an inferior spine projecting downward from its under 
surface. The superior spinous processes are long from before to 
behind, and together form a long rough line. 

The transverse processes are also long from before to behind. 
In these characteristics the cervical vertebrae differ radically from 
the others. 

Special cervical vertebrae. — There are certain cervical ver- 
tebras which have marked individual peculiarities. The Atlas, 
immediately supporting the head, has a small thin body with no 
head, but instead, two surfaces for articulating with the occipital 
bone. 

The axis is long, and has, in place of the head, a peculiar pro- 
jection known as "odontoid process." This process is shaped 
somewhat like a tooth. Hence the name. The spinous process is 
long from front to rear. 

The seventh cervical vertebra has a long spinous process, 
somewhat resemblng those of dorsal vertebrae. It also presents 
a small articular surface for articulation with the head of the first 
rib. 

Dorsal vertebrae. — Eighteen in number. These also have cer- 
tain general characteristics. The body is short. There are. four 
articular cavities, two in front and two behind for the heads of 
the ribs. Spinous processes are long and flat from side to side. 
Transverse processes short, and small. None of the dorsal ver- 
tebrae differ very markedly from this general type. 

Lumbar vertebrae. — In general the body is longer and wider 
than the dorsal. The spinous processes are also shorter. The 
transverse processes are also long, flat and thin. 

Sacrum. — This consists of five pieces united in the adult. It 
articulates with the last lumbar vertebra in front, with the first 
coccygeal vertebra behind and with the pelvis on each side. This 
portion of the spinal column is triangular with the base forward. 



SPINAL COLUMN, STERNUM AND RIBS. 15 

Coccygeal vertebrae. — These are 15 to 18 in number. The 
spinal canal is developed in the first three or four. The first 
one is occasionally united to the sacrum. 

The sternum. — This is located in the front and lower portion 
of the chest, and extends from before to behind. It consists of 
six or seven pieces of cartilaginous bone and has distinct prolonga- 
tions of cartilage from both the front and rear ends. On each 
side are articular surfaces for the first eight ribs. 

Ribs.- — These usually number 18 pairs, and are described as 
the first, second, third, etc., beginning with the front pair. They 
all articulate above with the dorsal vertebrae, the lower ends of 
the first eight articulate with the sternum by means of cartilages. 
The remaining ten connect with the sternum by means of long 
cartilages, each of which rests against the preceding one. The 
ninth, or first asternal, rib is united rather closely to the eighth 
which articulates with the sternum. 





FIG. 9. TYPICAL LUMBAR VER- FIG. 10. LATERAL VIEW OF 

TEBRA, FRONT VIEW. THE SACRUM. 

1, Body; 2, head; 3, superior spin- 1, Spinal canal, anterior portion; 

ous process; 4, transverse process. 3, superior spinous processes. 

The shaft shows external convex, and internal concave sur- 
faces and two borders : anterior or front, and posterior or rear. 
The superior extremity shows a head and a small projection, the 
tuberosity. These articulate with the dorsal vertebrae as already 
explained. The inferior extremity of each rib is somewhat concave 
for the cartilage which connects it with the sternum or otber car- 
tilages. The ribs increase in width up to the sixth, then decrease. 
Function of the ribs is to form a supporting and movable wall 
for the chest, protecting the soft organs and performing a very 
important function in respiration. 



LECTURE III. 
FRONT LIMB. 

This limb is composed of 20 bones and includes the shoulder, 
arm, fore arm and foot. 

The shoulder contains but one bone, the scapula or shoulder 
blade. It is triangular and situated at the front and lower por- 
tion of the chest wall. Its direction is downward and forward 
and it articulates below with the head of the humerus or arm 
bone. The inner surface is somewhat concave. The external 
surface is divided into two portions by a long ridge which ex- 
tends lengthwise of the bone. The upper portion is flat and 
thin. 

The arm contains a single bone, the humerus. The humerus 
is a long bone. Its upper end articulates with the scapula, and 
the lower end with the ulna and radius. It offers for descrip- 
tion a shaft, and upper and lower extremities. A peculiar fea- 
ture of the shaft is a sort of furrow, which twists around the 
bone and is known in anatomy as the furrow of torsion. The su- 
perior extremity shows a rounded head which is fitted for articu- 
lation with a corresponding cavity of the scapula. 

The fore arm contains the radius and ulna, which in the horse 
and cow are firmly united. The radius belongs to the group 
classified as long bones and articulates with the humerus above 
and the carpal bones below. The anterior surface of this bone is 
convex and smooth ; the posterior surface concave. The ulna is 
also a long bone, located just back of the radius. The shaft is 
triangular. The upper extremity shows a marked enlargement 
which is useful for attachment of muscles and gives leverage. 
It also contains a deep notch for articulation with the humerus. 
The inferior portion of this bone is slender and more or less 
pointed, containing at its extremity a small knob. 

The foot includes seven carpals, three metacarpals, two sesa- 
moids, three phalanges, and one navicular. 



ANTERIOR LIMB. 



17 



The carpals consist of seven small, short bones, and with the 
articulation of the carpals to the radius above, and the metacarpals 
below, make up what is commonly known as the knee joint. 

The metacarpals are located in what is known as the region 
of the cannon. They are three in number: a large one in the 
middle, which is long and more or less cylindrical ; and one rudi- 
mentary metacarpal on each side. These together articulate above 




FIG. 11. ANTERIOR LIMB OF THE HORSE. 
O, Scapula; H, humerus; A, radius; U, ulna; C, carpals; M, metacarpals; 
S, sesamoids; P, phalanges. 



18 ANATOMY. 

with the carpals, and the large one below with the first phalanx 
and the sesamoids. The small metacarpals are commonly known 
as splint bones. 

The first phalanx is commonly known as the pastern. It is 
the shortest bone in the body that is classified as a long bone. 
The shaft shows an anterior, convex surface and a posterior sur- 
face which is flattened and rough. The upper extremity is marked 
by two shallow cavities, separated by a median groove and fitted 
for articulation with the two convex surfaces and the median 
ridge which mark the inferior extremity of the large metacarpal. 
The lower extremity has two articular surfaces separated by a 
median groove like that of the large metacarpal. 

The sesamoids are two small, somewhat triangular, and irreg- 
ular bones, placed side by side just back of the upper part of the 
pastern bone. These articulate with both the large metacarpal 
and first phalanx or pastern. They are side by side and together 
form a groove for the flexor tendons. 

The second phalanx, or coronet bone, is short and somewhat 
square in form. It articulates with the first phalanx above, and 
the third phalanx and navicular below. The upper and lower ex- 
tremities of this bone resemble the upper and lower extremities 
of the first phalanx. 

The third phalanx, or pedal bone, is pyramidal in shape and 
irregular. Its superior face shows two shallow cavities separated 
by a median ridge fitted for articulation with the second phalanx. 
The anterior face is convex and quite rough. The inferior sur- 
face is the one on which the foot rests. It is called the sole. 
The superior border of the anterior face has quite a projection 
which is especially fitted for the insertion of a tendon. This is 
technically known as the pyramidal process. The lower portion 
of this bone is continued outward and backward on each side into 
what is known as the wing. 

The navicular bone is located just back of the upper part of 
the third phalanx and is articulated to that bone. It is long and 
narrow, and placed transversely. Its anterior surface articulates 
with the third phalanx. Its posterior surface is covered with 
cartilage and forms a gliding surface for the tendon of the deep 
flexor muscle which passes over this bone to its attachment on 
the sole or inferior surface of the third phalanx. 



LECTURE IV. 
POSTERIOR LIMB. 

This limb also contains 20 bones, and is divided for studv 
into pelvis, thigh, leg, and foot. 

The pelvis is divided into two halves, each half being com- 
posed of three bones closely united. These bones are distinct 
in early life, but become united as the animal grows older. The 
two halves of the pelvis bound the pelvic cavity which contains 
the rectum, bladder, and sexual organs. Each half of the pelvis 
articulates with the sacrum. 

The thigh contains one bone, the femur, which articulates 
above with the pelvis and below with the larger of the two leg 
bones. The femur belongs to the group which we have classified 
as long bones and is the heaviest and strongest bone in the body. 
This bone offers for study a shaft, upper and lower extremities. 
The shaft shows three faces : external, internal, and anterior, which 
are smooth and convex, and a posterior face which is rough and 
irregular on the surface. There is a large projection on the 
upper portion of the posterior face called the internal trochanter. 
On the upper extremity we find a smooth rounded head which 
articulates with a deep cavity in the pelvic bone above. On the 
external surface and projecting above the head is the external 
or great trochanter. The inferior extremity is somewhat flat 
from side to side and shows two rounded surfaces which we will 
call condyles. These are separated by a deep groove known as 
the trochlea. 

The leg contains three bones : tibia, fibula, and patella. 

The tibia is a long bone with a somewhat triangular shaft, 
larger at the upper than at the lower end. It articulates above 
with the femur, patella and fibula, and below with the bones of 
the hock; i. e., the tarsal bones. This bone, like the femur, offers 
for study a distinct shaft, upper and lower extremities. 

The shaft of the tibia presents three surfaces : the external, 



20 



ANATOMY. 



internal, and posterior; and three borders — the anterior, external, 
and internal. The superior extremity shows in front a depres- 
sion for one of the ligaments which attaches the patella to the 
tibia, a small articular surface for the fibula on the outer side; 
two oval depressions with a marked projection between them 
for articulating with the condyles of the femur. These are smooth 
and covered with articular cartilage. The inferior extremity pre- 




FIG. 12. POSTERIOR LIMB OF THE HORSE. 
C, Pelvic bone; F, femur; V, patella; J, tibia; X, fibula; T, tarsals; M, 
metatarsals; S, sesamoids; P, phalanges. 



POSTERIOR LIMB. 2L 

sents an external and an internal tuberosity. Its articular sur- 
face consists of two shallow cavities and a median ridge, all three 
of which extend diagonally forward and backward. 

This bone articulates with four others; viz., femur, patella, 
fibula, and one of the tarsal bones. 

The -fibula is a small rudimentary bone, which articulates with 
the external portion of the head of the tibia, and is situated on 
the external side of that bone. 

The patella is small, short and located in front of the lower 
extremity of the femur, and attached to the tibia below by three 
strong ligaments. It is displaced outward when the limb is in 
the condition popularly known as "stifled." This bone offers 
for study three faces: superior, to which muscles are attached; 
the anterior, which is convex and somewhat irregular; and the- 
posterior, which is so shaped as to fit nicely into the femoral 
groove already mentioned. 

The foot bears a very close resemblance in its anatomy to the 
corresponding portion of the anterior limb, and is divided for 
study into the tarsus, metatarsus, and digit. 

The tarsus is composed of six or seven small bones, arranged 
in two rows, the upper row containing the astragalus and os cal- 
cis. The lower row usually consists of four small bones. Two 
of these are especially interesting because they are the common 
seat of bone spavin. 

The astragalus is interesting because it furnishes the articular 
surfaces for the lower end of the tibia. 

The os calcis is somewhat elongated and lies behind the as- 
tragalus. It corresponds to the prominent portion of the human 
heel. The bones of this region correspond to the human tarsal 
bones making up the ankle. 

The metatarsus consists of three bones, a large one in the 
center and one small rudimentary bone on each side; i. e., on 
the inside and outside of the middle bone. The large metacarpal 
furnishes the supporting axis for this region as in the anterior 
limb. The shaft is fairly smooth and has a small articular sur- 
face on each side for the rudimentary metatarsal. It is supposed 
that the small metacarpal and metatarsal bones are merely sur- 
vivals in the process of evolution and that in the earlier history 
of the various animals from which the modern horse is descended 



22 ANATOMY. 

these bones were larger than they are now, having the same length 
and the same functional importance as the principal metacarpal 
and metatarsal bones. The original ancestor of the horse is sup- 
posed to have had five metacarpals and five metatarsals with cor- 
responding digits or toes. 

Each digit contains three bones known as the phalanges, the 
horse having three phalanges and the cow six. These are com- 
monly known as the first, second and third phalanges, or os suf- 
fraginis, os corona, and os pedis. The anatomy of this region 
is discussed more fully in the special chapter on the foot. 

The phalanges, sesamoids, and navicular bones are very sim- 
ilar to the corresponding bones of the front limb, already de- 
scribed. 



LECTURE V. 
ARTICULATIONS OR JOINTS. 

Articulations are divided into several groups for the purpose 
of study. These groups are: immovable, slightly movable, and 
freely movable. 

Examples: Immovable, between the skull bones; slightly 
movable, between vertebrae; freely movable, between scapula and 
humerus. 

Freely movable. — The freely movable articulations are subdi- 
vided according to shapes of the articular surfaces and varieties of 
movement that can be produced. These subdivisions are : ball and 
socket, hinge, pivot, imperfect hinge, and gliding. 

The ball and socket articulation, of which we find examples 
at the shoulder and hip, is made by a rounded head of one bone 
fitted into a rounded cavity of some other bone ; for instance, at 
the shoulder we have a rounded head of the humerus fitted into 
a glenoid cavity of the scapula. At the hip a rounded head on the 
superior extremity of the femur fits perfectly into the cotyloid 
cavity of the pelvic bone. It will be readily seen that the ball 
and socket joint permits the greatest variety of movements. 

The hinge joint is made by two articular surfaces of such 
shape and so fitted together that no lateral or rotary motion is 
possible. Only two movements are allowed at joints of this kind : 
flexion and extension. The articulation between the humerus 
above and the ulna and radius below offers a good example of 
this kind. 

Pivot joint is one where portions of two bones are in con- 
tact in such a way as to permit of rotary motion ; for example, 
between the Atlas and axis, the rotation being around the odon- 
toid or tooth-like processes of the axis. Articulations of this kind 
permit of rotation only. 

The imperfect hinge joint is one which permits of two 
principle motions — flexion and extension, and to a limited extent 



24 ANATOMY. 

some other motion, as for instance rotary or lateral movement. 
We may find a type of this articulation between the temporal 
and inferior maxillary bones, or between the femur and tibia. 
Articulations of this kind are formed by oval heads fitting in oval 
sockets. 

Gliding joints permit only simple gliding movement between 
the articular surfaces. The articular surfaces in joints of this 
kind are more or less nearly flat. 

Immovable. — At immovable articulations the bones are firmly 
united by cartilage and practically continuous with each other. 

Slightly movable. — At slightly movable articulations, bones 
are united by a cartilage which is elastic enough to permit of slight 
movement, e. g., the common intervertebral articulations. 

At freely movable articulations the articulating bony surfaces 
are each covered by a thin layer of smooth, glistening and elastic 
articular cartilage. This cartilage gives a smooth gliding surface. 
It also lessens jar by its elasticity and protects the bony surface 
beneath. 

Structures at joints are bones, ligaments, tendons, muscles, 
synovial membrane, and synovial fluid. 

Ligaments are either bands or sheets of white or yellow con- 
nective tissue. The white ligaments are very strong and inelas- 
tic. Their sole function is to hold bones together at articula- 
tions. The yellow ligaments are composed of yellow elastic con- 
nective tissue, and are especially useful as assistants to muscles, 
particularly in supporting parts of the body, like the head of the 
horse, which constantly tend to fall. 

Synovial membranes are sometimes called capsules. These are 
serous membranes, quite thin, but composed of two layers, deep 
and superficial. This membrane affords at each joint a closed 
sack and is for the purpose of secreting synovia. Synovial mem- 
branes do not cover the surface of the articular cartilage as is 
frequently supposed, but usually enclose the articulations like 
sacks, being attached at one side near the edge of the articular 
surface of one bone, and at the other side near the articular edge 
of the other bone. The membranes are usually also attached to 
the inner surface of the capsular or other ligaments of the joint. 

Synovia is a viscid fluid, slightly yellow or nearly colorless. 
It has an oily feeling, but is not an oil chemically. This fluid is 
quite rich in albumen which gives it the viscid property, and 



ARTICULATIONS. 25 

adapts it so well for lubricating articular surfaces. Muscles and 
tendons are discussed in Lecture VI. 

Kinds of motion are : flexion or bending, in which the two 
articulating bones are brought nearer each other; extension, the 
reverse of flexion, by which bones are straightened on each other ; 
adduction bringing the lower extremity of the moving bone to- 
ward the median line; abduction in which the lower end of the 
moving bone is carried from the median line; circumduction, in 
which the articulation forms the apex of a cone circumscribed by 
the moving bone; rotation in which one bone rotates as a pivot 
on another. 

Joints are named according to the bones involved. In the 
limbs the upper bone is named first. In the vertebrae, the an- 
terior bone is named first. 

DESCRIBING ARTICULATIONS. 

Scapulo-humeral. ■ — This is a ball and socket joint, the round- 
ed head of the humerus fitting the glenoid cavity of the scapula. 

Ligaments at this joint are: (a) Glenoid, a cartilaginous 
rim around the cavity which deepens the cavity; (b) capsular, 
a sort of capsule fitting around the joint like a bag; (c) two 
bundles of ligament fibers in front of the joint connecting the 
extremities of the scapula and humerus. 

Movements. — All the motions, except true gliding, are pos- 
sible at this articulation. The synovial membrane is quite loose 
and affords a lining for the capsular ligament. 

First interphalangeal articulation. -This is an imperfect hinge 
joint. The articular surface of the inferior extremity of the first 
phalanx is characterized by two condyles and a median groove 
which fit with two shallow cavities and a median ridge on the 
superior extremity of the second phalanx. 

Ligaments. — The articular extremities which make up this 
articulation are supported by the following ligaments and tendons : 
in front by the tendon of the anterior extensor muscle ; on the 
sides by two lateral ligaments, one on each side ; behind by the 
posterior ligament and the tendons of the shallow and deep flexor 
muscles which pass over the posterior of the joint. The pos- 
terior ligament is really a thick strong pad of fibro-cartilagc. 

Movements. — Flexion and extension, together with a limited 
lateral movement. 

Vet. Studies— 2. 



LECTURE VI. 
MUSCULAR SYSTEM. 

The peculiar property of muscle tissue is the power of self 
contraction and self movement. The muscles of the animal body 
are divided into voluntary and involuntary. 

Voluntary muscles are under the control of the will through 
the cerebro-spinal system. 

Involuntary muscles act independently of the will and are 
under the control of the sympathetic nervous system. 

Voluntary muscles. — What is popularly termed "lean meat" 
is composed of voluntary muscles. These are classified into sim- 
ple, digastric, biceps, triceps, penniform, bi-penniform. 




FIG. 13. VOLUNTARY MUSCLE. (M. H. R.) 

1. Action of Muscle in Producing Motion. Muscle does its work by short- 
ening its belly. A, A, Bones; B, B, tendons; C, belly of muscle; E, articula- 
tion (joint). 

2. Muscle in Cross Section. Showing "bundle of bundles" arrangement of 
the fibers. Dots represent single fibers. 

3. Diagram of Simple Muscle. B, B, Tendons; C, belly (lean meat). 



A simple muscle is characterized by a single belly with not 
more than one tendon at either end : a digastric muscle has two 
bellies connected by a tendon : a biceps muscle has two tendons 
at one end ; a triceps muscle has three tendons at one end ; penni- 
form, when the fibers attach to one side of a tendon ; bipenniform, 



MUSCULAR SYSTEM. 



27 



or featherform, is characterized by fibers attaching to two sides 
of a continuous tendon. 

They are also classified according to function into flexors, 
extensors, abductors, adductors, and rotators. 

The belly is the active working part (lean meat). The ten- 
don merely serves to give connection with a distant object, usu- 
ally a bone. Tendons are strong but have no power of contraction. 
The strength of a muscle depen'ds upon the thickness of the belly. 
The extent of its movement depends upon the length of the belly. 

The two ends of a muscle are defined as origin and insertion. 
The origin is the less movable end ; insertion the more movable 
end. It may happen at one time that one end is the insertion, 
at another time the origin. 




FIG. 14. MUSCLE FIBERS. 
A, Bundle of voluntary fibers, side view. B. C. D. Three Involuntary fi- 
bers, spindle-shaped cells with nuclei. 



A muscle produces motion by pulling upon some bone which 
acts as a lever with the fulcrum at a joint. 

The muscle fibers may attach directly to the bone, or indi- 
rectly through tendon fibers. The connection between the muscle 
fiber and the tendon fiber is by insertion of the conical point of 
the muscle fiber into a conical cavity at the end of the tendon 
fiber. 



28 ANATOMY. 

Structure. — The voluntary muscle consists of bundles of 
bundled fibers, each individual fiber has its own delicate sheath. 
A number of fibers are enclosed within a common connective tis- 
sue sheath and constitute a minute bundle. A number of these 
bundles are in turn wrapped within a connective tissue sheath, 
forming a larger bundle. These larger bundles may in turn be 
wrapped by means of another connective tissue sheath into a still 
larger bundle. 

The voluntary muscle fiber is long, threadlike, marked by 
cross stripes which are very close together, and may end in ten- 
don fiber. These muscle fibers are about 1-1500 of an inch wide, 
but may be very long. 

Involuntary muscles. — Involuntary muscle fibers are merely 
long, spindle shaped cells, which do not end in tendon fibers. 
They may be arranged in the form of small bundles and are usu- 
ally in the form of thin sheets. Involuntary muscle tissue is light- 
er in color than voluntary and usually encloses hollow organs 
forming one of the coats or layers. The middle coat of the stom- 
ach and intestines is composed of involuntary muscle fibers. 

Function. — It is their function to carry on work which could 
not be entrusted to conscious control and with which the brain 
could not well be burdened. 

Peristaltic action of the stomach and intestines is produced 
by the rythmic action of these muscle fibers. The heart muscle 
fibers differ from both the typical voluntary and the typical in- 
voluntary fibers. They are striped but operate independently of 
the will. 

Source of heat and power. — Muscular power comes from ox- 
idation of food material in the various tissues of the body, par- 
ticularly in the muscles and larger glands. During the process 
of oxidation, carbonic gas and other materials are developed. 
Power is increased by proper nourishment, and is decreased by 
lack of nourishment. Muscles lose in strength by over work be- 
cause they are consumed more rapidly than rebuilt. Muscles 
are paired in a double sense. The rule is that for any given 
muscle there is a corresponding muscle on the other side of the 
body and also one or more opposing muscles on its own side. 

The belly of a muscle has a rich blood supply ; the tendon has 
very little. 



MUSCULAR SYSTEM. 29 

Description of voluntary muscle. — The masseter muscle is lo- 
cated on the outer part of the cheek. Form, flat, broad, thick, 
four sided. Origin, on the temporal and superior maxillary bones. 
Insertion, on the outer surface of the inferior maxillary. Action, 
elevates the lower jaw. Nerve supply, from a branch of the fifth 
cranial nerve (trifacial). 



LECTURE VII. 

NERVOUS SYSTEM. 

Function. — The peculiar function of the nervous system is 
to control the various organs and systems of the body, and com- 
pel them to work in harmony. The peculiar property of nerve 
tissue is irritability. The nervous system is composed of nerve 
centers, nerve trunks, nerve fibers, and nerve cells. 

A nerve center is composed of ganglion cells, nerve fibers, 
connective tissue, and blood vessels. The function of a nerve 
center is to receive and dispose of impressions which may be 




CAB 

LLL. 



FIG. 15. NERVE CELL AND NERVE FIBER. 

A. Nerve Cell with Several Poles. One pole continues as a medullated 
nerve fiber. A, Primitive sheath; B, medullary sheath; C, axis cylinder. 

2. Medullated Nerve Fiber. A, Primitive sheath; B, medullary sheath; 
C, axis cylinder; D, node; E, nerve corpuscle. 

brought to it, to connect nerve fibers, and in the case of the fore 
brain to originate conscious impulses. 

A nerve fiber is composed in some cases of a central fiber 
surrounded by one or two protecting sheaths ; in other cases, of 
the central fiber only. Nerve fibers conduct impulses between 
the various tissues and organs, and the nerve centers. 



NERVOUS SYSTEM. 31 

A nerve trunk is composed of an indefinite number of nerve 
fibers supported within a common sheath. 

A nerve cell is an irregularly shaped microscopic cell, having 
a varying number of branches, one of which, in case of the motor 
cells, may continue to indefinite length as the axis cylinder or 
central fiber previously mentioned. 

Nerve fibers are classified according to function into : motor, 
sensory, and special sense. 

Motor fibers are those which convey impulses to the muscles 
and control muscular action. 

Sensory fibers are those which convey impulses toward brain 
centers and supply only sensation to the structures to which they 
are distributed. 

Fibers of special sense, as in olfactory, optic, and auditory 
nerves, transmit only sensations that pertain to the functions of 
the special senses, like hearing and sight. 

Many of the cranial and facial nerves contain both motor 
and sensory fibers and are. therefore mixed. 

Nerve trunks are therefore classified as motor, sensory, mixed, 
and nerves of special sense, according to the kind or kinds of 
fibers composing them. 

The nervous system is subdivided for study into the cerebro- 
spinal, and sympathetic nervous systems. 

CEBEBRO-SPINAL SYSTEM. 

The cerebro-spinal nervous system .consists of the brain and 
spinal cord together, with their nerves and ganglia. The brain 
and spinal cord should be considered as one complex organ lo- 
cated within a continuous canal ; the brain to be considered as 
merely an enlargement at the anterior extremity. The cranial 
cavity should be considered as an enlargement at the anterior- 
extremity of the spinal canal. The cranial bones may be consid- 
ered as peculiarly developed vertebrae. 

The brain is located in an ovoid cavity, the walls of which: 
are formed by the cranial bones. It is covered by three mem- 
branes : (i) The dura mater, is tough, thick and strong, and 
exactly fitted to the inner surface of the cranial bones. (2) The 
arachnoid consists of two layers forming a closed sack, the outer 
layer fitted closely to the dura mater, and the inner layer fitted 



32 ANATOMY. 

closely to the pia mater. (3) The pia mater is thin, delicate, 
and fits closely to the brain substance — over the convolutions and 
into the depressions. 

Gray matter, folded into convolutions covers the surface. 
The interior is composed of white matter. 

Function. — The physiological function of the brain is to re- 
ceive messages, consider information, and send out appropriate 
impulses or orders to the proper organs. 




FIG. 16. CEREBRO-SPINAL NERVOUS SYSTEM. 

1. Brain; 2, optic nerve; 3, superior maxillary nerve; 4, inferior maxillary 
nerve; 5, pneumogastric nerve; 6, spinal cord; 10, radial nerve; 11, median 
nerve; 12, pneumogastric nerve; 13, portion of solar plexus; 14, solar plexus; 
17, sciatic trunk; 19, great sciatic nerve; 20, posterior tibial nerve; 21, poste- 
rior plantar nerve; 22, internal radial nerve; 23, anterior plantar nerve; 24, 
digital nerves. 



Divisions. — The brain is divided for' study into: (a) cere- 
brum; (b) cerebellum; (c) medulla; (d) isthmus. 

The cerebrum is largest, and located in the anterior and su- 
perior part of the brain cavity, and is divided into two lobes or 
hemispheres by the median fissure. 

The cerebellum, smaller than the cerebrum, is located in the 
posterior and inferior part of the brain cavity, and consists of 
three small lobes. Section shows the arbor-vitae (tree of life) 



NERVOUS SYSTEM. 33 

arrangement of nerve tissue. It is the function of the cerebellum 
to control the voluntary muscles that they may work in har- 
mony. 

The medulla is a continuation of the spinal cord and extends 
from the occipital opening in the brain cavity, to the pons or 
bridge and is located posterior and inferior to the cerebellum. 

Within the medulla are located a number of important cen- 
ters, among them, the ones controlling respiration ; the caliber of 
blood vessels, distribution of the blood according to the needs 
of the body ; the center controlling the processes of swallowing ; 
the vomiting center; and the center controlling the secretion of 
saliva. 

The isthmus is that part of the inferior portion of the brain 
which connects the pons with the cerebrum. 

Cranial nerves. —There are twelve pairs, of which the first is 
olfactory (nerve of smell) ; 2nd, optic (sight) ; 3rd, occulo motor, 
to muscles of the eye ball ; 5th, trifacial, to eye, skin of the face, 
teeth, etc. ; 7th, facial, to muscles of face ; 8th, auditory, to internal 
ear— hearing; 9th, glosso-pharyngeal to tongue and pharynx, 
sense of taste and general sensation; 10th, pneuiuogastric, some- 
times called the wandering pair, distributed to heart, lungs, stom- 
ach, liver, intestines and other abdominal organs. 

Spinal cord is that portion of the cerebro-spinal system which 
extends within the spinal canal from the occipital opening to the 
sacrum. It weighs about 10.5 oz. and consists of white matter 
on the outside and gray matter in the interior, and is covered by 
the same three membranes as the brain. The spinal cord is 
marked throughout its entire length by two fissures, one extend- 
ing along the superior surface, and another along the inferior sur- 
face. 

It is the function of the spinal cord to act as a means of 
communication between the brain and spinal nerves, and as a 
reflex nerve center. 

Spinal nerves. — There are about 42 pairs. Each nerve has 
origin in two roots. One root (superior) comes from the upper 
portion of the cord and is composed of sensory fibers. The other 
root (inferior) comes from the lower portion of the cord and 
is composed of motor fibers. The nerve is therefore mixed. 

These nerves emerge from the spinal canal in pairs, one on 



34 



ANATOMY. 



each side and at each articulation of the vertebrae. They are 
named cervical, dorsal, etc., according to location in the spinal 
column. 

The spinal nerves supply, by their superior branches, the 
skin and muscles of the neck and spinal column. By their in- 
ferior branches they supply the lower portion of the body and 
limbs and furnish other branches which in part make up the two 
great sympathetic nerve trunks. 




FIG. 17. SPINAL CORD AND BRAIN IN DIAGRAM. (M. H. R.) 

1. Cross Section of the Spinal Cord. A, Superior median fissure; B, infe- 
rior median fissure; C, C, superior gray horns; D, D, inferior gray horns; E, 
central canal; F, white substance. 

2. Vertical Mid- Section of Brain. A, Medulla; B, cerebellum; C, pons or 
bridge; D, isthmus; E, cerebrum. 



THE SYMPATHETIC SYSTEM. 

This consists of two cords, one on each side of the spinal 
column, and extending from the head to root of tail, together 
with all the nerves which branch from these two trunks. These 
cords are not smooth but have enlargements called ganglia at 
intervals along their course. Each cord resembles somewhat a 
small, rather flat and knotted rope. 

Composition. — These two trunks are composed of nerves from 
the medulla and from the inferior branches of all the spinal 
nerves except the coccygeal. By this arrangement of composi- 
tion and the frequent connections of sympathetic with cerebro- 
spinal nerves, there is constituted a very perfect union of these 
two systems into one great nervous machine. 

Ganglia. — The knots along the two main trunks are ganglia 
of nerve cells and fibers. One of these, the solar plexus, is really 
composed of two large ganglia, united by a large cord and many 



NERVOUS SYSTEM. 



35 



filaments. It supplies the stomach, intestines, liver, pancreas, 
spleen and kidneys. An injury to the solar plexus is always 
serious. 




FIG. 18. RELATION OF THE SYMPATHETIC AND CEREBRO-SPI N AL 

SYSTEMS. PARTLY DIAGRAMMATIC. 

1, Brain; 2, spinal cord; 3, sympathetics. 

Sympathetic nerves. — These control in part involuntary mus- 
cle fibers and through these the organs of circulation, respiration, 
and digestion, and in part the work of the various glands includ- 
ing the liver, spleen, pancreas, and kidneys. Sympathetic nerves 
are gray; cerebro-spinal nerves are white. 



LECTURE VIII. 
CIRCULATION. 

Blood is a complex fluid consisting of serum, fibrin factors, 
and for present purposes two kinds of corpuscles, — the red and 
the white. Its temperature differs in the various domestic ani- 
mals from 101 to 104 degrees F. The horse 100 to 10 1.5 degrees 
F. and the cow about one degree higher; sheep vary from 100 
to 104 degrees. Its specific gravity is about 1050 and it consti- 
tutes about one-tenth the body weight. 

Circulatory apparatus. —Heart, arteries, veins, capillaries, lym- 
phatic vessels and lymph glands. 

The heart is located within the pericardium, which supports 
the heart in place beneath the 3rd, 4th, and 5th dorsal vertebrae 
by. attaching to the large blood vessels at its base; to the dia- 
phragm behind, and to the sternum below. It measures about 
10.5 inches in length by 7.5 wide at the base; cone shaped; and 
weighs 6.75 pounds. The heart contains four cavities, easily seen 
by cutting the heart open. Two located at the base are called 
auricles ; and two at the apex, ventricles. 

The auricles are much alike, as are also the ventricles, ex- 
cept that the left ventricle is larger and has a wall which is 
more than twice as thick as the right. The heart is covered by 
the pericardium and lined with the endocardium. Its muscle 
fibers are involuntary so far as control is concerned, but are 
striped. 

Course of the blood. — Beginning with the blood entering the 
right auricle through the anterior and posterior vena cavae and 
coronary veins it then passes through the right auricle thence 
into the right ventricle, thence to the lungs through the pulmo- 
nary artery, back to the left auricle through four pulmonary 
veins, past the valves on the left side, to the left ventricle and 
is then sent by this ventricle through the systemic circuit. The 
systemic blood leaves the left ventricle through a large artery 
called the aorta. 



CIRCULATION. 37 

The opening between the right auricle and the right ventricle 
is guarded by the right auriculo-ventricular valve; the opening 
between the right ventricle and the pulmonary artery is guarded 
by the right semilunar valve. 

The opening between the left ventricle and the left auricle 
is guarded by the left auriculo-ventricular valve, and the open- 
ing to the aorta from the left ventricle is guarded by the left 
semilunar valve. 

The pulmonary circulation is the flow of blood which occurs 
between the heart and lungs. 

The systemic circulation is that which occurs between the 
heart and all the rest of the body, except the lungs. 

Arteries, veins and capillaries. — Arteries have thicker and 
more elastic walls ; remain open after death although empty ; 
the stream flows in jets ; the blood is lighter in color than that 
in the veins and flows from the heart. Arteries have no valves. 
In all these points the arteries differ from the veins. Both have 
three coats: outer, fibrous; middle, muscular; and inner, serous. 

Capillaries are the small vessels and spaces which connect 
minute arteries with minute veins. 

BLOOD SUPPLY OF THE BODY. 

Arteries. — The aorta is the trunk artery which receives blood 
from the left ventricle for the systemic circuit. It is about two 
inches long and branches into two large trunks ; viz., the anterior 
aorta and the posterior aorta. The anterior supplies the head, 
neck and front limbs ; and the posterior supplies in a general way 
the rest of the body. 

Anterior aorta is smaller and shorter (one inch long), course 
is upwards and forwards. It divides into the right and left 
axillary arteries. These lie near the trachea, one on each side, 
for a short distance and then bend around the anterior borders 
of the first ribs and terminate at the inner part of each shoulder 
in the humeral arteries, which are the continuing branches of 
the axillary. Each humeral furnishes blood for the correspond- 
ing front limb. 

The common carotid arteries, right and left, supply various 
structures in the neck and head. These have their origin in a 
single vessel, the cephalic artery which branches from the right 



38 



ANATOMY. 



axillary near the division of the anterior aorta into right and 
left axillary arteries. 

A corpuscle, on its way from the heart to the brain would 
pass through the aorta, anterior aorta, right axillary, cephalic, and 
common carotid and then through a branch of the carotid to the 
brain. 




FIG. 19. CIRCULATION. ARTERIES GRAY, VEINS WHITE. 

1, Heart, right ventricle; 2, left ventricle; 3, left auricle; 4, pulmonary 
artery; 5, pulmonary veins; 6, anterior aorta; 7, carotid artery; 9, left axillary 
artery; 13, humeral artery; 14, radial artery; 15, metacarpal artery; 16, digi- 
tal artery; 17, posterior aorta; 18, c.oeliac trunk; 19, mesenteric trunk; 20, 
renal (kidney) artery; 22, posterior vena cava (vein); 23, portal vein; 24, ex- 
ternal iliac artery; 25, internal iliac artery; 27, femoral artery; 28, posterior 
tibial artery; 29, metarsal artery; 30, venous supply to the foot; 33, jugular 
vein. 



Posterior aorta curves upward and backward, through the 
diaphragm, then under the bodies of the dorsal and lumbar verte- 
brae to the lumbo-sacral articulation. This large artery supplies 
blood to the thoracic and abdominal organs, and then terminates 
in four branches named illiacs ; two external and two internal. 

The two external illiacs correspond somewhat to the two ax- 
illaries in front and the two femoral arteries to the two humeral, 
for it is the femoral arteries which continue the external illiacs 
and distribute blood to the posterior limbs and feet. 



CIRCULATION. 39 

The two internal illiacs are smaller and distribute blood to 
the pelvic organs. 

Veins. — These usually accompany arteries. One large vein 
commonly accompanies each large artery and two small veins 
accompany each of the smaller arteries ; but this is not a fixed law. 

The anterior vena cava corresponds to the anterior aorta and 
the posterior vena cava to the posterior aorta. Each returns the 
blood to the heart which its corresponding aorta has distributed. 

All the veins except those of the bones, small veins in the 
feet and the veins of the brain and spinal cord, have valves. 

Valves are most common and numerous in the veins of the 
extremities and in those veins which pass through and among 
voluntary muscles. 

Pulmonary veins, four in number, have their origin within 
the lungs. They return blood from lungs to heart in the pul- 
monary circuit and carry pure blood. 

The anterior vena cava has its origin between the two first 
ribs at the juncture of the two jugular and two axillary veins. 
Jugular vein corresponds to carotid artery, and axillary vein to 
axillary artery. 

The posterior vena cava has its origin near the last lumbar 
vertebra by the. union of the common illiac veins. It passes be- 
neath and at one side of the bodies of the vertebrae, through liver 
and diaphragm to the right auricle of the heart. 

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM. 

Parts. — The lymphatic system consists of vessels and glands. 
The current in the vessels is like that in the veins in that it flows 
toward the heart and is very sluggish. 

Lymphatic vessels. — These have thin transparent walls and 
are found in most of the body tissues. They have valves like 
the veins and carry lymph, or in the lacteals, chyle. The lacteals 
are lymphatic vessles which drain the digestive canal, chiefly the 
small intestines. 

There are two main vessels : the thoracic and right lymphatic. 

The thoracic is situated along the vertebral column within 
the abdomen and thorax, on the right side, near the heads of 
the ribs. Has its origin in one dilatation or receptacle and ter- 
minates in another before emptying into the anterior vena cava. 



40 



ANATOMY. 



Its opening in the vein is protected by a valve in order that blood 
may not get into the duct. This duct drains all the body except 
the right side of the face, right side of head and neck, right shoul- 
der and right front limb. 

The right lymphatic duct is a very short vessel into which 
empty all the vessels which drain these latter regions. 

Lymph glands. — The lymph glands serve in part to remove 
from the lymph disease germs and other harmful bodies. Their 
function is something like that of a filter. 





FIG. 20. CIRCULATION. DIAGRAMMATIC. 

1. Heart and Blood Vessels. A, Heart; B, pericardium; C, anterior vena 
cava; D, posterior vena cava; E, anterior aorta; F, posterior aorta. 

2. The Circulation in Diagram'. A, A, Auricle-ventricle valves; B, B, 
semi lunar valves. 



Function. — The lymph fluid distributes nourishment by os- 
mosis directly to the body tissues, and removes waste materials 
by the same process. The nutritious materials are as a rule taken 
into the lymph from the blood, and waste materials which the 
lymph receives from the tissues are poured into the blood through 
the thoracic duct and the right lymphatic duct. 



LECTURE IX. 
RESPIRATION. 

Definition. — Respiration is the process by which the various 
tissues gain oxygen and give off impurities. Apparently, the plain 
simple purpose of respiration is two-fold : ( i ) to get oxygen into 
the blood and various body tissues, and (2) to get CO2 and vari- 
ous other organic impurities out of the blood and body tissues. 
It is a common mistake to suppose that respiration is confined to 
the lungs. A very important portion of the true respiration 
occurs between the blood and individual tissue cells apart from 
the lungs. 

Stages. — There are four stages in the complete act of res- 
piration: (a) air comes into the lungs; (b) blood takes out part 
of the oxygen; (c) tissues take part of the oxygen away from 
the blood and give back to the blood carbon dioxide gas in ex- 
change; and (d) the blood trades off its carbon dioxide to the 
air for oxygen. 

Parts. — Respiratory system consists of nasal chambers, pha- 
rynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs. These organs are all 
lined with mucous membrane. Function is to bring blood and 
air so near each other that the exchange may be rapid and the 
blood take away oxygen and leave waste matters. 

Nostrils. — Two in number. These are openings at the front 
of the nasal cavities. The skin covering the nostrils is compara- 
tively thin, quite sensitive and supported by cartilages. The 
mucous membrane lining the nasal chambers is divided for study 
into two portions, the upper in which are distributed the termina- 
tions of the olfactory nerves and the lower, the Schneiderian. 

The inferior turbinated bones are located on the outer wall 
of each nasal cavity, two in number, scroll shaped. 

Nasal cavities. — Two in number, one on each side of a me- 
dian partition. This partition is composed of the vomer, a por- 
tion of the ethmoid, and the median cartilage. Each cavity con- 

Vet. Studies— 3. 



42 



ANATOMY. 



nects in front with the outside air through the nostril and be- 
hind with the pharynx through an opening which may be called the 
posterior nostril or technically, the posterior nares. Each cham- 
ber also connects laterally with the sinuses of the head (shown 
in class). The floor, roof and sides are formed by the various 
face bones together with portions of the frontal, ethmoid, and 
sphenoid, and the median cartilage already mentioned. 

Pharynx. — This is a muscular sac situated beneath the 
cranium, and back of the soft palate which constitutes a partition 
between the pharynx and mouth cavities. This organ belongs 
to both the respiratory and digestive systems. Its walls are com- 
posed of two coats : the inner mucous and outer muscular. It 
connects by openings with the nasal chambers above, with the 
mouth in front, and with the oesophagus behind, with the lungs 
below, and on each side with the Eustachian tube to the middle 
ear. 



WATER 




OXYGEN 



HEAT 



'BOM-DhOX/D£ 



LUNGS 



BLOOD 



GA5 




BODY T/SSUfS 



FIG. 21. RESPIRATION IN DIAGRAM. (M. H. It.) 



Larynx. — A cartilaginous box located at the upper end of the 
trachea and composed of five pieces — one epiglotis, one thyroid, 
two arytenoids, one cricoid. Twelve muscles attach to these car- 
tilages for the purpose of controlling them. 

The epiglotis (a sort of lid) is a tongue-shaped piece of 
flexible cartilage which covers the entrance to the larynx. It 
is held down against the arytenoid cartilages when food is swal- 
lowed, but immediately afterward moves upward and thus opens 
the entrance to the larynx. It remains in this position during 
respiration. 



RESPIRATION. 43 

The thyroid cartilage (shield like) is located at the upper 
and front portion of the larynx extending well around on the 
sides. 

The arytenoids are two in number, one on each side. The 
two taken together are shaped somewhat like the front part of 
a pitcher, situated at the sides of the upper part of the larynx 
coming together at the median line. These cartilages give at- 
tachments to the vocal cords. 

The cricoid is shaped like a ring with a process on the up- 
per and front part, which causes this cartilage to resemble a 
seal ring. It is located at the lower portion of the larynx and 
connected with the trachea. 

The vocal cords are a pair of narrow fibrous bands so situ- 
ated as to include a narrow triangular space betwen them. They 
are attached in front to the thyroid and behind to the arytenoids. 

Trachea, or wind pipe. — This is located beneath and in front 
of the aesophagus. It is a long tube composed of about 50 car- 
tilage rings beginning at the cricoid cartilage above and terminates 
at the bronchi below. It therefore connects the larynx and bron- 
chi. It is lined by a mucous membrane which is covered by 
ciliated cells. 

Bronchi. — Are two in number, are branches of the trachea 
and very similar to it in structure and function. One bronchus 
attaches to the root of each lung. 

Lungs. — There are two, right and left. These are the es- 
sential organs of respiration, and located in thoracic cavity. Each 
iung is cone-shaped and enclosed in a separate pleural sack (ex- 
plained), and the other layer of the pleura lines the interior of 
the thorax. In the lungs of a horse the lobes are not distinctly 
marked. Some authors make no definite divisions ; others de- 
scribe the right lung as having three lobes and the left. two. 
The lobes are then described as anterior, middle, and posterior, 
the left lung in the horse having no middle lobe. 

In the cow's lungs the lobes are distinctly marked. The 
left lung has three distinct lobes. The right lung has four lobes 
by reason of the anterior lobe being divided into two parts: first 
and second. 

The root is where bronchi and large vessels attach to each 
lung. 



44 ANATOMY. 

The apex is the point at the front part of the lung. 

The base rests against the diaphragm. 

The bronchi are subdivided until they are very small and 
are then called bronchioles. Each bronchiole terminates in a 
very small cavity made by a lot of air cells opening together. 
These cells have very thin walls and are separated by loose con- 
nective tissue, in which minute blood vessels are located. Blood 
is then separated from the air by only a very thin niembrane. 



LECTURE X. 
DIGESTIVE APPARATUS. 

Definition. —The digestive apparatus consists of various or- 
gans which carry on the processes of food reception, digestion 
and absorption. The digestive apparatus also expels various un- 
digested and waste materials. The organs of digestion are the 
mouth, pharynx, oesophagus, stomach, and intestines, together 
with certain other organs ; viz., the salivary glands at the mouth, 
and the liver and pancreas in the abdominal cavity. 

Mouth. — At the mouth we find the lips, teeth, tongue, and 
palate. 

The horse has a freely movable and sensitive upper lip, 
which is used in selecting food. The cow has hard cartilaginous 
lips and selects her food mainly by the tongue. 

The tongue is used by the cow to select and gather her food, 
and by all animals to control the food while in the mouth and 
assist in swallowing. This organ is composed largely of mus- 
cular tissue with some connective tissue and is covered by the 
common mucous membrane. Its surface is studded with several 
kinds of papillae, similar to those on the human tongue. These 
aid in controlling the food while in the mouth and have to do 
with the sense of taste. They are especially prominent and 
strong on the cow's tongue. 

The hard palate forms the roof of the mouth and consists 
of portions of the superior maxillary and palate bones covered 
by tough connective tissue, and overlaid with mucous membrane. 
This connective tissue and its covering of mucous membrane is 
thrown up into a series of transverse ridges, easily seen on the 
roof of a horse's mouth, sometimes called "bars." 

The soft palate is a membranous structure containing some 
muscular tissue. Its function is to separate the posterior open- 
ing of the nose chamber and pharynx from the mouth. 

The salivary glands on each side are : one parotid, one sub- 



46 



ANATOMY. 



maxillary, one sub-lingual, and two molar. They secrete saliva 
which helps to change insoluble and useless starch into a soluble 
and useful sugar. It also assists in swallowing by so moisten- 
ing the food that it passes easily along. This is especially im- 
portant for animals like the horse, cow and sheep that live upon 
a dry and more or less bulky food. The horse needs on an 
average about 85 pounds and the cow 120 pounds every 24 
hours. 

The parotid is located behind the lower jaw and below the 
base of the ear. It is connected with the mouth by Steno's duct, 
through which its saliva flows to the mouth. 




FIG. 22. STOMACH OF THE HORSE. 

I. External View. A, Oesophagus; B, pyloric portion; C, duodenum; E, 
E, left sac; F, right sac. 

II. Internal View. B, Right sac; C, duodenum; E, oesophagus. 



The sub-maxillary lies in the space betwen the flat portions 
of the inferior maxilla, external to the larynx. Its saliva reach- 
es the mouth through Wharton's duct, which opens at the side 
of that portion of the tongue where it attaches underneath. 

The sub-lingual lies beneath the tongue and its saliva escapes 
into the mouth through 15 or 20 small ducts, the ducts of Rivini. 

Molar glands are two in number on each side and are located 
near, and opposite to the molar teeth. 

The pharynx belongs to both the digestive ancl respiratory 
systems and was described in the lecture on respiration. 

The oesophagus is a slender tube 6 to 9 feet long, 1 inch in 
diameter, connects pharynx and stomach, quite elastic. It is 



DIGESTIVE APPARATUS. 47 

composed of two coats. The inner is mucous membrane ; the 
outer is muscular and composed of two sets of fibers. One set 
encircling the oesophagus and the other placed lengthwise. 

The stomach is located in the anterior portion of the abdom- 
inal cavity. The horse's stomach, when cut open, shows two 
distinct portions. The mucous membrane which lines the in- 
terior on the left side is light colored, firm and tough, like the 
mucous membrane of the oesophagus of which it is a continu- 
ation. On the right side of the stomach the mucous membrane 
is soft and red. The horse's stomach holds about 3^ gallons, 
and the cow's stomach about 45 gallons. The function of the 
stomach is to receive food and furnish gastric juice. Stomach of 
the cow is compound, with four cavities. The first cavity, the 
paunch, is much the largest and acts as a sort of storage vat. 
Gastric juice is furnished by glands in right side of horse's stom- 
ach, and by cow's fourth stomach. Effect of gastric juice is to 
make proteid matters soluble, which it does by the action of its 
pepsin ferment which is very active. The quantity of gastric 
juice used by horse and cow varies from 100 lbs. to 170 lbs. in 
24 hours. 

The small intestine.— This begins at the stomach, the com- 
mon opening being guarded by the pyloris, a strong sphincter mus- 
cle like a purse string. The small intestine is divided into three 
parts duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. The small intestine is about 
72 feet long in the horse and 140 feet in the cow, and extends from 
the stomach to the caecum at which point the large intestine be- 
gins. 

The stomach, small and large intestine have the same three 
coats : inner mucous, middle muscular, and outer serous. 

The mucous coat in the small intestines is thickly studded 
with villi. Various intestinal glands furnish fluids which assist 
in digestion. 

The muscular coat is composed of two sets of fibers, those 
of one set encircling the bowel, and those of the other set arc 
lengthwise for the purpose of producing peristaltic action of the 
intestines. 

The outer coat is the peritoneum, a serous membrane which 



48 ANATOMY. 

lines the abdominal cavity and also covers the various abdominal 
organs. 

The liver is the largest gland in the body, weighing about it 
lbs. and is situated in the abdominal cavity on the right side and 
well forward against the diaphragm. It manufactures about 12 
lbs. of bile in 24 hours. The liver shows four fairly distinct 
lobes, named — the left, right, middle, and Spigelian. The liver 
is enclosed in a strong capsule called Glisson's capsule. The cow 
has a gall-bladder, but the horse has none and the bile flows 
more or less constantly into the intestine. The bile aids somewhat 
in digestion of fats. It has also a slight cathartic effect: it aids 
absorption and tends to prevent putrefaction. The liver cells 
convert sugar from the blood into animal starch (glycogen), 
and store it up as such and finally they reconvert this glycogen 
into soluble sugar and give it out to the blood in proportion as 
the blood loses its sugar. 




FIG. 23. STOMACH OF THE COW. 
A, A and B, B, Different portions of the paunch or rumen; C, termination 
of the oesophagus; D, second stomach (reticulum); E, third stomach (oma- 
sum) ; F, F, fourth stomach (abomasum) ; G, small intestine, just beyond the 
pyloris; H, oesophagus. 

The pancreas, smaller than liver, weighing only 17 oz., but it 
furnishes about 11 lbs. pancreatic fluid daily. Located in ab- 
dominal cavitv below aorta and behind stomach and liver. Ends 



DIGESTIVE APPARATUS. 49 

are called head and tail. Shape is long triangular. Much like 
.a big salivary gland. Pancreatic fluid empties into intestine at 
or near the bile duct. This fluid contains four different fer- 
ments : one acts on starch, one on protein, one on fats, and one 
curdles milk. This is probably the most important of the di- 
gestive fluids. 

The large intestine is about 25 feet long in horse, capacity 
.33 gallons. In cow 42 feet long, capacity 18 gallons. Parts : 
Caecum, large colon, small colon. 

Caecum (blind pouch) in horse 3 )/ 2 feet long, capacity y]/ 2 
gallons. Important in digestion of cellulose. 

Large colon in horse 12 feet long, capacity 20 gallons. 

Small colon in horse 10 feet long, capacity 6 gallons. In cow 
large and small colon are studied together, and are 35 feet long, 
with a capacity of 14 gallons. 

Large intestine of both animals is long, large and sacculated 
to hold contents a long time and offer a large amount of ab- 
sorbing surface. It takes contents about five days to pass through 
the alimentary tract of cow, and about three days to pass through 
that of horse. 



LECTURE XL 
PHYSIOLOGY OF DIGESTION. 

Definition. —Digestion is a chemical process by which food 
matters are made soluble and capable of absorption. 

The digestive fluids are saliva, gastric juice, pancreatic juice, 
bile, and intestinal juice. These are the active agents which bring 
about the chemical changes necessary to make food matters so- 
luble. 

Food groups are of two general classes : organic, and inor- 
ganic. 

The organic group is divided into three sub-groups : car- 
bohydrates (sugars and starches) ; proteids (egg albumen, casein, 
gluten, etc.) ; and hydrocarbons (fats and oils). 

The inorganic group includes water, lime, sulphur, phos- 
phorus, etc. 

COURSE AND HISTORY OF FOOD GROUPS. 

Carbohydrates. — Starch cells are broken up by the teeth 
and the starch is changed by the saliva, and pancreatic juice, 
into soluble sugars. Physiologists differ somewhat as to details, 
but during the process of digestion at least two sugars — dex- 
trose (grage sugar), maltose, and dextrine, an intermediate body 
between sugar and starch, are formed. After these chemical 
changes comes absorption, then distribution. A large part of the 
starch products are taken into the portal circulation and carried to 
the liver. The remainder enters the general circulation. The por- 
tion carried to the liver is there changed back to a form of starch, 
called glycogen. As the blood loses its sugar, it is resupplied 
from the liver. Thus the liver becomes a store house for sur- 
plus sugar and at the same time acts as a balance wheel, in main- 
taining a uniform percentage of this material in the blood. The 
sugar is ultimately oxidized, liberating heat, CO2, and water. 
These are excreted by the skin, lungs and kidneys. 



PHYSIOLOGY OF DIGESTION. 51 

Proteids. — These are not affected by the saliva, but are 
changed to soluble peptone by the gastric and pancreatic juices, 
then absorbed into the blood current and ultimately distributed 
to tissue cells of the body to replace worn out parts or to build 
up new parts in growing animals. 

It has been held that proteid matters were especially neces- 
sary to repair tissue worn out by mechanical work; but there 
is good reason to think that this has been overestimated in the 
past, and that the carbohydrates have much to do with the ulti- 
mate source of physical power. 

It is probable that surplus proteids are extensively converted 
into fat, and stored as such in the tissues of the fattening animal, 
or excreted as butter fat by the milch cow or nursing mare. The 
remaining proteids are finally oxidized, and excreted from the 
body as urea and water. The urea is mainly excreted by the 
kidneys and the water by all the excretory organs. 

Fats, or hydrocarbons. — These are digested mainly by the 
pancreatic fluid. They are not acted on by either saliva or gas- 
tric juice and but slightly by the bile. The pancreatic fluid emul- 
sifies a portion which reaches the lacteals in this condition. The 
remainder is digested by separating the glycerine from the fatty 
acid (fat consists of a fatty acid plus glycerine). Glycerine is 
readily soluble and easily absorbed. The fatty acid unites with 
alkaline material from the bile and pancreas to form soluble soap 
and thus the remainder of the fat is absorbed. Then comes ab- 
sorption of this emulsified and digested fat, distribution in the 
blood current, and finally assimilation, i. e., building into cell 
tissues or oxidation. It may be deposited either into and become 
a part of the cell bodies or it may be deposited between the cells 
and thus become a stored reserve. Under some conditions this 
storing up of fatty matter may constitute a diseased condition, as 
when the heart muscle undergoes fatty infiltration or degenera- 
tion. The final changes which fats undergo are oxidation and 
then excretion as CO2 and water. 

Suggestions. — Mature animals need a constant supply of 
food to supply heat, and energy for physical work and in the 
case of fattening animals for conversion into storage fat. Young 
and growing animals must have food to supply heat and energy 
for physical work, and in addition food from which new cells 
may be built. 



52 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 

The more thorough the digestion and absorption, the better 
will be the returns for food consumed. 

Thorough digestion with imperfect absorption means wasted 
feed, and useless work for the digestive organs. 

Generous feeding therefore is not enough. It must be done 
intelligently. 

Best results are secured when the bowels are in a medium 
condition between diarrhoea and constipation. 

Both digestion and absorption and through them good or 
bad results in feeding depend to a considerable extent upon the 
condition of the mucous membrane lining the digestive tube and 
through which absorption must take place. 

Water horses before feeding and do not give more than 
one-half pail within an hour after feeding, if you wish to get 
the very best results from food constimed with the least risk 
to health. 

There is usually no profit in grinding grain for horses, un- 
less they have poor teeth or eat rapidly, and yet the old street 
car system may be practical and economical when done on a 
large scale, if the mechanical work can be done cheaply. This 
method is to cut and wet the hay or straw, then mix in the 
ground grain. This is a very safe method and secures thor- 
ough digestion and absorption, and in addition the horses so fed 
are not stuffed with hay. 

Feed only as much hay at one time as the horse will clean 
up at each feed with the grain, approximately 10 lbs. to 15 lbs. 
per 24 hours. Feeders are usually surprised to find how well 
their horses do with greatly reduced hay ration and the same 
grain. There is less danger from stomach and bowel troubles, 
and almost no danger at all from heaves. 

Beware of dry bran for horses that eat hurriedly. They 
are liable to choke on it. 

When any animal is choked do not try to force any straight 
and stiff object down its throat. There is great danger of rup- 
turing the oesophagus near the pharynx. 

The cow has an entirely different stomach as to its plan 
and size, and the intestinal canal is nearly twice as long. Her 
large paunch and the other stomachs, as well as the long intes- 



PHYSIOLOGY OF DIGESTION. 53. 

tine, indicate that she can utilize a coarser diet than the horse, 
and that she can digest and absorb such foods more thoroughly. 
They also indicate that nature intends her to eat larger quan- 
tities at a time and at longer intervals than the horse, and that. 
the same is true as to the water she drinks. 



LECTURE XII. 



URINARY ORGANS AND MAMMARY GLANDS. 

Urinary organs are kidneys, ureters, bladder, urethra. 

Kidneys. — These important organs are situated in the sub- 
lumbar regions, supported in place by large blood vessels and 
connective tissue. They differ in shape, size and location, the 
right one being larger, farther forward and more nearly round. 
Each is covered by a fibrous capsule from which bundles of 
connective tissue branch to penetrate the organ and form a frame- 
work. 




FIG. 24. LENGTHWISE SECTION OF THE HORSE'S KIDNEY, 
a, Cortical portion; b, medullary portion; d, d, d, pelvis; g, ureter. 

Internal structure. — On cutting open a kidney we may see 
two distinct portions separated by a wavy line, and a cavity at 
the root. The two portions are cortical (outside), medullary 
(center). 

The cavity at the root, called pelvis, is merely the funnel 
shaped origin of the ureter. 

The arterioles terminate and the urine tubules have their 
origin in the cortical portion. These little urine tubes make up 
a large part of the bulk of the kidney. Each tubule begins 
somewhere in the cortical portion in a little sac like cavity, with- 



URINARY ORGANS AND MAMMARY GLANDS. 55 

in which is a tangled network of finest arterioles. The little 
sac narrows at the open end and from this narrowed neck con- 
tinue the tubules. Each tubule makes certain convolutions, then 
descends to the medullary portion, thence back to the cortical 
where it makes certain other convolutions and finally terminates 
in a larger duct through which the urine escapes to the pelvis 
of the kidney and then into the ureter. Each tubule is thus 
very long in proportion to its size and there are a large number 
of them. 

Function of the kidneys: (a) Removal of useless or waste 
and poisonous materials from the blood; (b) removal of normal 
substances from the blood when they are there in excess; (c) 
to keep the blood normally alkaline by removing from or adding 
alkaline materials to the blood as needed. 

How accomplished. — The water and salts in solution are re- 
moved from the blood within the little sacs at the beginnings of 
the tubules by a process of filtration under pressure, the pressure 
on the blood, inside the fine arterioles within the urine tubule 
sac, being greater than the pressure on the water in the sac 
around the arterioles. The urea, albumen, etc., are passed out 
into the water farther along the tubule. These are taken from 
the blood by the cells which line the tubules. 

Composition. — Urine is composed of water, salts of sodium, 
potassium, calcium, etc., together with various organic matters 
as urea and uric acid and various aromatic substances which 
give the odor. Normal reaction in herbivorous animals is alka- 
line. Specific gravity for horse is 1036, and for cow 1025. 
Either may vary within the normal range. Horse excretes about 
10 pints in 24 hours, and the cow about 25 pints. Within limits 
the more nitrogen in feed of cow the greater amount of urine 
is excreted. Urine is excreted by the kidneys continuously and 
runs drop by drop into the bladder. 

Ureters. — These are two slender tubes which conduct urine 
from kidneys to bladder. They are about the size of a goose 
quill, about one foot long and terminate at the bladder passing 
for an inch along between the muscular and mucous coats of 
that organ, before reaching the interior. This is to prevent back- 
ward flow of urine into ureters. 



56 



ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 



Bladder. — This is a muscular sac, a urine reservoir, located 
in the inferior and anterior part of the pelvic cavity. Ovoid in 
shape. This organ is supported in place by a variety of liga- 
ments. It is in relation above, in the male, to the rectum ; in the 
female, to the vagina and below to the floor of the pelvis. It is 
covered in front by peritoneum and is in relation to the coiled 
small intestine. 



L . KIDNEY 



R. KJDNEY 



URETER 



URETER 




FIG. 25. URINARY APPARATUS IN DIAGRAM. (If. H. R.) 
P, A, Posterior aorta; D, D, renal arteries; P, peritoneal coat of bladder; 
Mus., muscular coat; Muc, mucous coat. 



Openings. — Three on the posterior of the organ ; viz., one 
to the urethra, and two for the ureters. The neck of the blad- 
der is composed of a band of yellow elastic tissue around urethra 
and is pulled open by longitudinal muscle fibers when urine is 
to be passed. No distinct sphincter or muscle fibers at the 
neck. 



URINARY ORGANS AND MAMMARY GLANDS. 57 

Coats. — Three: mucous, muscular (of several layers), and 
serous (peritoneal). 

Urethra. — This is the canal which conducts urine from blad- 
der to exterior of body. 

MAMMARY GLANDS. 

The cows udder is taken as a type. The glands are lo- 
cated under the inguinal region and supported by skin, loose 
connective tissue and bands of white fibrous tissue which at- 
tach to the fibrous tunic of the abdomen and act as ligaments to 
help support the organ. The udder is covered by thin, soft 
skin and fine hair. 

Anatomy. — The udder is divided into two lateral halves. 
Each half has two glands, front and back, and each half is en- 
cased in a fibrous sac of yellow elastic tissue. 

The substance of each gland is made up of yellow gland- 
ular tissue, connective tissue, nerves, blood vessels, etc. Each 
gland is divided into lobes, and these again into lobules. 

There is one small milk duct for each lobule. These unite 
into larger and larger ducts, and thus the milk is conveyed into 
the milk cistern. 

A milk cistern is located just above the base of each teat. 
This receives milk from the milk ducts — capacity one pint to one 
quart. Milk escapes from cistern through a single large canal. 

Development. — The gland structure is undeveloped and ru- 
dimentary until maturity, and only becomes active at the close 
of the first pregnancy. 

Function. — Natural function is supplying sufficient milk to 
the calf until it can subsist on other foods. 

Milk production. — The production of the casein, sugar, fat, 
etc., is a manufacturing process, not mere filtration for there is 
no casein or milk sugar in blood and but very little fat. Secret- 
ing cells take certain elements from the blood and put them to- 
gether so as to make the milk ingredients. 

Products. — Milk is a complex alkaline fluid ; specific grav- 
ity 1018 to 1040, composed of oil globules suspended in milk 
plasma and is therefore an emulsion. Milk globules consist al- 
most entirely of fat, with a thin coating of casein. They are from 
.0004 to .0012 of an inch in diameter. Milk plasma consists of 

Vet. Studies— 4. 



58 



ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 



water, with sugar, salt, albumen and whatever may be in solution 
in the water. 

Colostrum is a fluid which accumulates in udder during the 
latter part of pregnancy and differs from milk in containing 
the colostrum cells, a few oil globules, much albumen and but 
little casein, fat or sugar. It has mild cathartic effect on the 
young animals. 

The quantity and quality of the milk depends on several fac- 
tors : food, period of lactation, period of gestation, condition of 
the nervous system, quantity of blood passing through the udder, 
amount of water in the food, individual peculiarity or hereditary 
tendency. Breed would naturally be included under the latter. 




FIG. 26. ONE QUARTER AND 

TEAT OF COW'S UDDER. 

(0. K. O.) 

C. Milk Cistern. Note constric- 
tion just below the cistern. Anoth- 
er constriction at end of teat. Holes, 
shown in the gland above, are milk 
ducts cut across. 




FIG. 27. MILK VESICLES AND 
OUTLET DUCTS. MAGNIFIED. 



Blood supply. — The mammary glands receive their supply 
through the mammary artery, which distributes branches through 
the two glands in each half of the udder, one artery on each 
side. The blood for one-half the udder thus comes through the 
external iliac artery, then through a branch of that, the pre- 
pubic, and then through a branch of the prepubic, the external 
pudic. 

The mammary artery is one of the terminal branches of the 
external pudic. When the cow stands still more blood flows 
through the udder than when she is exercising. The large vein 
which may be felt in front of the udder on each side and called 
by dairymen the "milk vein" is properly the subcutaneous ab- 
dominal vein. It does not drain the udder as popularly sup- 
posed. 



URINARY ORGANS AND MAMMARY GLANDS. 59 

Nerve supply. — The mammary glands have their nerve sup- 
ply through the first lumbar pair of spinal nerves. The nerve 
trunk which reaches the gland on each side, divides into three 
branches, the second and third of which regulate in an inter- 
esting way the various phenomena of cell activity, blood supply 
and calibre of the milk ducts. These processes are all directly 
under control of the nervous system. 

Why last milk drawn is richer in fat than the first : There 
is a comparatively small amount of milk stored in the cisterns 
and ducts when milking begins, and then as milking goes on the 
secreting cells manufacture the fat, casein, sugar, etc., more rap- 
idly in proportion than the process by which water and matters 
in solution are taken from the blood and thus the later milk has 
less water or more solids than the first drawn. 

Mare's milk differs from cow's milk in possessing more fat 
and sugar, and less protein. Her udder differs from the cow's 
udder in having but one gland in each half. There are from 
two to four cisterns at the base of the teat instead of one and 
each cistern has an excretory canal to the point of the teat. 



LECTURE XIII. 



THE FOOT. 



The foot, technically includes all structures at and below the 
knee in front, and the hock behind. This lecture only deals with 
that portion of the foot below the ankle. 

Bones. — First phalanx ; two sesamoid bones ; second pha- 
lanx; navicular bone; and third phalanx. For first and second 
phalanges, sesamoids and navicular, see Lecture III. 

The third phalanx is an irregular 
bone of loose spongy texture. The 
body is shaped somewhat like the 
hoof and shows at the top in front 
a prominence called the pyramidal 
process, and on each side a projec- 
tion called the wing, under which 
may be seen a groove through 
which groove an artery passes on 
its way to form part of an arch 
within the substance of the bone. 
From this arch is given off the 
branches which distribute nourish- 
ment to the vascular parts. Above 
the wings, inside the hoof, are cav- 
ities into which the lateral carti- 
lages fit. They are of firm cartilage 
and may be felt above the crown of 
the hoof on each side. They are 
attached below to the wings of the 
third phalanx and plantar cushion. 
To the front and sides of the third 
phalanx are attached the sensitive 
laminae. The inferior surface is concaved to receive the sensitive 
sole, or velvety tissue. 




FIG. 



1. 



28. BONES OF THE 
HORSE'S FOOT. 
Metacarpal; 2, 2, sesa- 
moids; 3, first phalanx; 4, sec- 
ond phalanx; 5, navicular bone; 
6, third phalanx (os pedis); 7, 
basilar process; 8, 8, wings; 9, 
pyramidal process. 



THE FOOT. 61 

The navicular bone is also a sesamoid bone; i. e., it is 
formed in tendon. It is a short bone in structure, but rather 
long and slender in shape, and placed crosswise just back of the 
articulation between the second and third phalanges. Its in- 
ferior surface is smooth except for a slight ridge in the center. 
The tendon of the deep flexor muscle passes over this surface 
on its way to its insertion on the bottom of the third phalanx. 
The ends of the navicular bone unite on each side with the wings 
of the third phalanx by tough fibrous tissue. 

The horny hoof. — This is to be regarded as an appendage 
of the skin. It covers all of the third phalanx and part of the 
second. It is divided for study into wall, sole, and frog. 

The wall is that part which may be seen when looking at 
the hoof in front and at the sides. It is composed of horny, 
tubular fibers, which grow from the coronary band. Between 
these tubular fibers is a material which holds them together. 
The wall is divided into toe, quarters, and heels. At the top is 
a groove into which the coronary band fits, the crown of the 
hoof. The wall unites below with the sole. The smooth shin- 
ing layer which should cover the whole surface of the wall is 
periople. The duty of this layer is to prevent undue evaporation 
from the hoof. Beneath the periople is the horny wall which 
gives shape to the foot and protects the soft parts within. Inside 
this hard layer come the laminae, 500 to 500 thin leaves of horny 
material which dovetail in with the sensitive laminae. 

The sole is composed of horny material resembling that of 
the wall. It is concave below, convex above. Its outer border 
unites with the wall at the "white line." Its upper surface is cov- 
ered by the vascular velvety tissue. 

The frog is a "V" shaped elastic pad with a depression, 
called by horsemen "the cleft," in its ground surface. It is lo- 
cated between the bars on each side, and below the plantar cushion. 
Its function is to act as a pad and to lessen jar when traveling. 

The matrix (horn generating membrane). — This fits inside 
the horny part of the hoof and covers like a stocking the other 
parts within the hoof. It is from this that all the horny parts 
grow. It is composed of three parts: (1) coronary band; (2) 
sensitive laminae; (3) velvety tissue. 

The coronary band is the elastic ring that may be felt at 



62 



ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 



the crown of the hoof. It is studded with little papillae. From 
these grow downward the tubular fibers which make up the hard 
layer of the wall. 

The sensitive laminae are 500 to 600 layers of vascular tis- 
sue into which fit and from which grow the horny laminae of the 
wall. An inflammation here is called laminitis or founder. 




FIG. 29. THE HOOF. 

The Wall. A, Toe; B, quarter; C, heel. 

Ground Surface, a-a, Toe; a-b, quarter; b-d, heel; c, bar: 
g, white line; h, frog; I, cleft of the frog. 



f, f, f, sole; 



The velvety tissue covers the upper surface of the hard sole. 
Like the coronary band and sensitive laminae, it is sensitive and 
richly supplied with blood. The under surface is thickly stud- 
ded with papillae, similar to those of the coronary band, and 
from these in a similar way grow the shorter tubular fibers which 
make up the hard sole and frog. The student can easily under- 
stand why injury to the coronary band, which results in a heal- 
ing by scar tissue, leaves a split which lengthens downward in 
the hoof; why founder is so painful; and why deep injuries to 
the sole are so apt to be serious. 

The plantar cushion is a wedge-shaped mass of elastic tis- 
sue located between the lateral cartilages on each side, below 
the sole of the third phalanx and above the horny sole of the 
hoof. It assists the horny frog in lessening jar in travel and 
protects the insertion of the deep flexor tendon. 

"The hack tendons" is a term used by horsemen to include 
the tendons of the superficial and deep flexor muscles of the 
foot and the suspensory ligament. 



THE FOOT. 



63 



The superficial flexor muscle, of the front foot, has its origin 
on the lower end of the humerus and its insertion by tendon on 
the sides of the second phalanx. Its function is to flex the foot 
at the first interphalangeal articulation. 

The deep flexor muscle, of the front foot, has its origin in 
common with the superficial flexor on the lower end of the 
humerus, and its insertion by a tendon which spreads out on 
the sole of the third phalanx. Its duty is to flex the second and 
to assist in flexing the first interphalangeal articulation. 

The suspensory ligament is broad and very strong. It at- 
taches by its upper end to the carpal bones and to the large meta- 
carpal. Its lower end divides into two branches which pass 
forward on each side and attach to the front tendon. Its duty 
is to support the metacarpophalangeal articulation (fetlock). 

GOOD FEET. 

The shape and peculiar charac- 
teristics of each hoof correspond in 
correlation with the remainder of 
the limb, except as the hoof has 
been varied by artificial means. So 
in judging the hoof it is also nec- 
essary to consider the characteris- 
tics of the entire limb. 

The front limb may be said to 
be normal in position and direction 
when it appears on front view that 
a vertical line from the front of the 
fig. 30. the hoof matrix, scapulo-humeral articulation passes 
band; P |f °s P ensi r t^l ; ilminaeTT down the center of the limb and to 
o h n eel the V siTe ety tiSSUe ri<>t Sh ° Wn the ground at the center of the toe. 
On viewing such a limb from the side it should be evi- 
dent that a vertical line downward from the bony prominence 
at the middle of the scapula would divide the external surface 
of the limb into two equal portions and reach the ground imme- 
diately back of the heels. 

Viewing the hoof and pastern alone it should be seen that 
the hoof is in direct line with the pastern and metacarpal or 
metatarsal bones, and that a line extending from the center of 




64 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 

the cannon through the center of the pastern would pass through 
the center of the toe. 

The hind limb when viewed from behind should show that a 
vertical line downward from the prominence at the posterior por- 
tion of the pelvis on each side (tuberosity of the ischium) would 
divide the entire limb into two equal portions and reach the 
ground back of the center of the horny frog. 

Viewed from the side the normal hind limb should indicate 
that a vertical line, dropped from the prominence of the articu- 
lation between the femur and pelvis, should reach the ground op- 
posite a point near the center of the hoof. This line is somewhat 
difficult to get, and of less value for the reason that a slight 
leaning forward or backward disturbs it. This should be taken 
when the horse is standing with the limb squarely under the 
body in a natural position for the particular animal examined. 

For the front hoof the wall at the toe and the anterior sur- 
face of the pastern, should make an angle of not less than 45 nor 
more than 50 degrees with the level ground surface. The wall 
at the toe and the anterior surface of the pastern having the 
same slant. 

For a normal hind hoof the angle should be from 50 to 55 
degrees, and the anterior faces of the hoof and pastern should 
still have the same slant. 

A normal hoof has a good quality of horn, wide heels, and 
circular rather than long and narrow ground surface. The hind 
hoof is narrower and more pointed at the toe than the front 
hoof. The wall from coronary band to ground surface should 
be straight and smooth ; i. e., no ridges or grooves. The heels 
should be rounded, well developed and of the same height at 
the top of the coronary band. The sole should be distinctly con- 
cave and show no marked separation from the wall. The frog 
should be large, elastic, the two portions of the same size, with 
a shallow groove along the center. The bars should be straight, 
extending forward and inward. The lateral cartilages, felt above 
the coronary band on each side, should be elastic. The sole in 
the angles between the bar and wall at the heel should not show 
red stain. There should be no separation of the horny fibers 
as in toe or quarter cracks. The wall should be reasonably thick. 
This can be usually determined by tapping the wall with a ham- 
mer, noticing its rigidity. 



LECTURE XIV. 
PATHOLOGY. 

Physiology is the study of the body organs and their func- 
tions in health. 

Pathology is the study of diseased organs and their disor- 
dered functions. Healthy conditions are taken as a basis for 
studying the diseased conditions. Pathological processes are but 
healthy ones modified. 

HYPERAEMIA— CONGESTION. 

There are two kinds of hyperaemia, active and passive. 

In active hyperaemia there is excess of blood in the arteries 
of some tissue or organ. This condition may be due to excessive 
strength and activity of the heart and want of strength and 
elasticity in the arteries of that part, allowing them to stretch. 

Passive (venous or mechanical) hyperaemia is a condition 
in which the current of blood is slowed and there is excess of 
blood in veins and capillaries. The condition may be due to 
weakened heart action or to obstruction in arteries or capil- 
laries. The local changes that may follow passive congestion 
are exudation of plasma with some red and white corpuscles, 
and later gangrene. An active hyperaemia, on the other hand, 
may lead if long continued to enlargement of the part or organ. 
The vessels themselves may enlarge to several times their former 
size. 

INFLAMMATION. 

Definition. —A pathological process, marked by pain, heat, 
redness and swelling. These are called the cardinal symptoms. 

The changes which occur during inflammation are : ( I ) dila- 
tation of arteries and veins; (2) current velocity increased at 
first, then decreased; (3) when current begins to decrease the 
corpuscles collect in capillaries and small veins and adhere to 



6b PATHOLOGY. 

their walls, thus obstructing the blood current; (4) both kinds 
of corpuscles and the blood plasma may pass through walls of 
small veins and capillaries. Inflamed tissue may lose vitality, 
degenerate and die. 

Inflammation varies according to (a) resisting power of 
tissue, (b) activity of cause, (c) length of time cause is in ac- 
tion. 

Causes of inflammation. — Are: (1) Mechanical injury, 
chemical action, excessive functional activity, extremes of heat 
and cold, etc. Inflammation thus caused has little tendency to 
spread beyond the part injured, and there is usually little or 
no pus unless pus germs invade the inflamed area. 

(2) Microbes, micro-organisms and germs are synonymous 
terms as commonly used. These can cause inflammation without 
the aid of local injury. Inflammation may be caused directly 
by their mechanical presence and activity, or it may appear as 
the result of irritation caused by chemical agents which the 
germs manufacture. Microbic inflammation may be either sep- 
tic or infective. 

Terminations. — Inflammation may terminate in (a) resolu- 
tion, (b) death of the tissue, or (c) new growths. 

Resolution. — In this case the exudate is removed by the 
lymphatics and veins; blood current starts again in the small 
vessels ; the corpuscles move away in the re-established current 
or else become degenerated like the fibrin of the exudate and 
then removed, and the organ or tissue becomes normal again. 

Local death. — If death of the part occurs, the inflammation 
goes on until part or all of the inflamed organ or tissue dies. 

If new growths occur, there develop new tissues, e. g., tu- 
mors, granulations in wound, and scar tissue. 

FEVEE. 

Definition. — Fever is a pathological condition characterized 
by an excess of heat in the body. Not a disease, merely a symp- 
tom of disease. 

Cause. — Any disturbance that causes an increase of heat 
production or decrease of heat loss, usually the former. Normal 
temperature of horse is 100 degrees F. to 101.5 degrees F. One 
hundred and four degrees F. is called high, 106 degrees F. very 



HYPERAEMIA, INFLAMMATION AND FEVER. 67 

high. Normal temperature of adult cattle varies from ioo to 
102.5 degrees; of sheep from 100 to 104 degrees. Nervous sys- 
tem has control of both heat production and heat loss. The body 
temperature is therefore a balance or relation between heat pro- 
duction and heat loss. 

Heat production. — The source of animal heat is the oxida- 
tion of body tissue and fuel materials in the blood and the con- 
sequent breaking up of complex chemical compounds into simpler 
ones. The principal heat furnishing organs are the muscles and 
secreting glands. 

Heat expenditure. — Body heat is normally expended about 
as follows: warming food and drink, 2% ; warming air in lungs, 
5%; evaporation from lungs, 8%; evaporation of moisture from 
the skin surface and radiation from skin, 85%. The expenditure 
of heat in evaporation of moisture from the skin surface is very 
much larger than either of the others. On an average there 
is sufficient heat developed daily in a body of a medium sized 
horse to raise 4,550 gallons of water 1.8 degrees F. 

Symptoms of fever. — (a) Elevation of temperature; (b) 
dry, hot skin (not always present) ; (c) pulse and respiration 
quickened (normal pulse of horse, 36 to 45; normal respiration 
8 to 14 per minute) ; (d) scanty urine; (e) loss of flesh. 

Kinds of fever. — Classified according to course are: (a) 
continuous, with but slight variation; (b) remittent, varies great- 
ly during the day, but does not get down to normal; (c) inter- 
mittent, in which the temperature varies at different portions 
of the day and reaches normal at a certain time each day; (d) 
relapsing, fever comes at certain intervals, with a period of one 
or more days of normal temperature between. 

Stages of fever. — (a) The initial, or beginning; (b) the 
acme or highest point; (c) decline. The initial stage may be 
either short or long, according to the patient and disease. The 
decline may be slow or rapid. 

Results. — (a) Emaciation, or general atrophy, more or less 
severe, according to the duration and height of the fever, and 
caused by continued unusual oxidation of body tissues; (b) death 
may occur, or; (c) recovery. Death may occur suddenly, or the 
.final changes may occur gradually. The recovery may be par- 



68 PATHOLOGY 

tial or complete, slow or rapid, depending on : the nature of the 
disease of which the fever is a symptom or condition; the native 
vigor or vital constitution of the patient; and the conditions un- 
der which the patient is kept and under which the disease runs 
its course. 



LECTURE XV. 
PATHOLOGY. 

Haemorrhage is any appearance of blood outside of the 
natural channels. 

Causes. — (i) Injury to the vessel walls, as when cut or 
torn; (2) diseases of the vessel walls, e. g., fatty or calcareous 
degeneration; (3) excessive blood pressure inside the vessel, as 
in hypertrophy of the heart with excessive strength and activity 
resulting in rupture of the vessels; (4) change in the quality 
of the blood with weakness in the vessel walls. 

Dropsy is any abnormal collection of serous fluid in any cav- 
ity or tissue of the body. This may occur in the abdominal 
cavity, in the chest cavity, ventricles of the brain, or in loose 
tissues under the skin. Of those places outside the large cavi- 
ties, the most common are the limbs and lower portions of ab- 
domen. Dropsical fluid is usually of pale straw color, nearly 
neutral in chemical reaction and slightly heavier than water. 

Cause of dropsy. — (1) Any local increase of blood pressure, 
(2) any interference with flow of blood in the veins, (3) obstruc- 
tion in capillaries, which is quite common in diseases of the liver. 

Dropsy may be either general or local. 

General dropsy may affect the sub-cutaneous connective tis- 
sue over a large area, and any of the serous body cavities. It 
may be due to conditions associated with anaemia, heart trouble, 
or kidney disease. 

Local dropsy is limited to some one organ or cavity, and 
may be due to local mechanical obstruction in the veins or may 
occur as a result of inflammation, as in pleurisy where there is 
an inflammation of the pleura and dropsy into the pleural sacs. 

Hypertrophy is any enlargement of any part or organ of 
the body. It may be due to either an increase in the number 
of elements, or an increase in the size of existing elements, or 
to a combination of two conditions. Hypertrophy may be either 
physiological, healthy, or pathological, diseased. 



70 PATHOLOGY. 

Physiological hypertrophy is illustrated in the blacksmith's 
arm, where there is an enlargement due to an increased exercise 
and therefore increased nutrition to the muscles. If one kidney 
be removed, the other enlarges to compensate. 

Pathological hypertrophy is illustrated in fatty degeneration 
of the heart, in which this organ undergoes fatty changes and 
becomes larger, but loses in strength and usefulness. 

In any hypertrophy the newly formed elements are more 
nearly like the normal when the circulation is most vigorous. 

Atrophy is the opposite of hypertrophy and is characterized 
by a decrease in bulk and weight, as for instance sweeny of the 
shoulder muscles in horses. Atrophy may be general or local 
and the decrease in size may be due either to decrease in size 
or number, or to decrease both in size and number of the ele- 
ments. 

Local atrophy may be caused by: (i) decreased amount of 
blood and decreased nutrition, (2) nerve disturbance which some- 
times results in very rapid atrophy, (3) inflammation; (4) exces- 
sive functional activity and exhaustion of the tissue elements; (5) 
continuous pressure. 

General atrophy may be caused by lack of nutrition or ex- 
cessive consumption and wastages of the soft tissues, especially 
the fats which are first taken ; e. g., in typhoid fever in the human, 
or influenza in the horse. 

Degenerations and infiltrations are characterized by changes 
in the quality of a tissue ; the bulk may or may not remain the 
same. When tissue degenerates, cheaper material may be de- 
posited in and actually becomes a part of the tissue. This is 
degeneration. When infiltration occurs, the lower grade tissue 
is deposited between the fibers or tissue elements, whatever these 
may be. The proper elements may then shrink. The tissue or 
organ loses in functional strength and activity in either case. 

Fatty degeneration is characterized by a deposit of fatty mat- 
ter into and as a part of the tissue elements, especially common 
in muscular tissue. 

Fatty infiltration is characterized by a deposit of fatty mat- 
ter between the elements according to the previous definition. 
Either may be caused by (1) deficiency of blood and consequent 



DROPSY, HYPERTROPHY AND DEGENERATION. 71 

imperfect nutrition; (2) inflammation; (3) high fever; (4) 
poisons like phosphorus, arsenic, antimony, etc. 

Calcareous degeneration and infiltration are marked by de- 
posit of lime salts into or between the tissue elements and may 
be caused by anything that results in imperfect nutrition and 
lessened vitality. These conditions occur more frequently in the 
tissues of older people or animals. The muscular coat of the 
arteries sometimes becomes calcified and brittle in old people and 
may even break under some unusual strain. 

There are various other degenerations and infiltrations be- 
sides these two named ; but in each case there occurs the deposit 
of some inferior tissue into or between the proper elements of 
the organ. 

Collapse. — The symptoms are : temperature below normal ; 
surface of body cold; respirations very shallow and slow; pulse 
feeble and very slow or very fast. 

Collapse may be the result of (a) a very high fever, (b) 
poison, (c) suppression of secretion or excretion, (d) rupture 
of internal organs, (e) excessive haemorrhages, (f) decomposi- 
tion of the blood. 

Syncope is nearly the same as collapse, except more sudden 
and the symptoms are very brief. 

Death begins at heart, lungs or brain. Heart failure (syn- 
cope) is very sudden. Lung failure results in suffocation or 
asphyxia. Brain failures develop slow symptoms, stupor being 
present. When death occurs because the blood is altered, the 
heart first ceases action. 



LECTURE XVI. 
WOUNDS. 

Definition. — A sudden break in the continuity of a tissue, 
caused by external violence. Wounds are usually open, some- 
times subcutaneous. 

Healing. — All wounds heal by the production of new cells 
and new intercellular substance formed from preexisting tissue 
cells. These constitute granulation tissue. The embryonic cells 
change later into mature cells like those of the adjacent tissue. 
Complete union implies a restoration of circulation and nutri- 
tion. This again implies new blood vessels for the new tissue. 

Union by primary intention. — The essentials of this mode 
are rapid union and absence of pus. All wounds which heal with- 
out suppuration heal in this way. There is always some new 
tissue, although it may not be visible. 

By granulation. — The new cells are formed by the division 
of preexisting cells. All wounds heal only after the develop- 
ment of more or less granulation tissue between the divided sur- 
faces. If the wound is free from germs and the surfaces are- 
kept at rest and close together, healing is very rapid and but little 
new tissue needed. Where there is loss of much tissue, it may 
be impossible to bring the surfaces together and a great deal 
of new tissue is needed. Connective tissue cells only develop 
from preexisting connective tissue cells, epithelial from epithelial, 
bony from bony, etc. 

When wounds are covered with granulations, each little ele- 
vation contains a loop or network of new blood vessels. The 
white blood corpuscles emigrate through the new blood vessels 
and form part of the pus when this is present. Healthy gran- 
ulations are small, firm, pink in color, and the surface around 
them is slightly moistened with a colorless fluid. In this case 
the wound heals rapidly and usually leaves a small scar. 

Proud flesh is merely a mass of profuse granulations, and: 



WOUNDS. 73 

indicates either a lack of vitality in the system or else external 
irritation. The latter is usually from germs. 

Development of new blood vessels. — This is from vessels 
that previously existed in the injured tissue. The growth of 
new blood vessels and new tissue for union, start together and 
continue until enough granulation tissue has been developed. 
After the embryo cells have become fully developed unnecessary 
vessels begin to disappear. The new vessels start by budding 
from capillaries near the surface and are always short. These 
buds project farther and farther and gradually change into 
threads. These gradually hollow into tubes beginning at the 
end near the old capillary. It happens frequently that the ends 
of two neighboring projections meet and unite to form an arch. 
After this becomes hollowed out we have a capillary loop formed. 
When this development is complete, then new blood vessels may 
start out from this one and perhaps develop another arch. The 
thread-like projections are probably hollowed out by the blood 
current in the parent vessel. 

Inflammation in wounds is due to foreign material ; for in- 
stance, dead tissue or foreign bodies, but more commonly by 
germs which by multiplication give rise to wound infection and 
inflammation. 

Osseous tissue. —Wounds in bone tissue heal like those in 
other tissues, the wound surface being covered with granulations. 
The development of new tissue is from the periosteum and from 
the marrow at the place of injury. At the end of a few weeks, 
the ends are united by a spongy mass beneath the periosteum and 
in the medullary canal. This mass gradually becomes organized. 
This is called a callus and is largely removed later. 

Cartilage has very little power of repair. Loss of cartilage 
is generally repaired by connective tissue. 

Nerve tissue. — After a nerve is cut, the distal end degen- 
erates. New axis cylinders come down from the proximal por- 
tion and grow through or along old sheaths of the distal end. 
It is doubtful whether primary union ever takes place. Quick 
return of sensibility does not necessarily imply restoration of the 
injured fibers. The proximal axis cylinders enlarge and sepa- 
rate at the ends. As they grow in length they may extend out 
into surrounding connective tissue, the proximal end of the nerve 

Vet. Studies— 5. 



74 PATHOLOGY. 

has then changed to a mass of fibers distributed through the sur- 
rounding connective tissue. The axis cylinders receive new 
sheaths which probably grow from nerve cells lying within the 
old sheaths. Whether the new fibers ever reach the old ter- 
minals, depends upon the amount of intervening tissue and the 
density of it. The limit of growth is placed at from one to 
two inches. 

The new tissue. — In certain tissues, extensive injuries may 
be repaired by tissue which completely resembles the original. 
This is true of tendons and bones. Muscular tissue seems to 
have much less ability to repair extensive injuries. Scar tissue 
contracts for a long time after healing is complete. The scar 
is large when there has been more granulation tissue than need- 
ed or where an extensive removal of tissue necessitates a great 
amount of scar tissue. Scar tissue in this case is endowed with 
low vitality, and is poorly nourished. 

How skin recovers a surface. — A wound is not entirely healed 
until it is recovered. This takes place by development of new 
epithelial cells from preexisting ones of the skin. These new 
epithelial cells gradually form new skin which grows from the 
margin and has a slight bluish pink color. It only covers the 
granulations loosely at first, but later unites firmly to them. New 
epithelial cells have the power of amoeboid movement. They may 
become detached from the margin and set up a new covering 
center elsewhere on the wound surface. Restoration of the skin 
surfaces and for that matter the entire healing is favored by sur- 
gical cleanliness, and is hindered by irritating medicines, and b> 
rubbing sponges, etc., over the surface. 

An exception should be noted, viz., that when healing has 
ceased in case of an old sore, with the surface not yet covered 
by skin, healing may sometimes be given a vigorous start by a 
blister. 



LECTURE XVII. 

WOUNDS. 

The most common wounds which affect stock are those caused 
by barbed wires, plows, harrows, etc., and are generally large 
. and badly torn. The farmer rarely has to deal with a nice clean 
i wound that can unite smoothly and heal rapidly. 

Bad treatment. — Nearly every farmer has some special prep- 
aration which he thinks of great value in the treatment of wounds. 
Most of these preparations are seriously injurious, and greatly 
retard healing. Various preparations of turpentine, alcohol, vin- 
egar, carbolic acid, irritating oils, and even the mineral acids 
are frequently used in the treatment of these wounds and then 
because the patient recovers in spite of barbarous treatment, peo- 
ple erroneously conclude that the medicine cured. 

Bleeding". — This can usually be checked quite easily. If the 
blood comes from a large number of small vessels the haemor- 
rhage can be checked and finally stopped by means of ice, by 
very cold or very warm water, or the wound may be packed with 
clean cotton or oakkum and tightly bandaged. In case a large 
blood vessel is severed, it may be better to draw the end out and 
tie a strong thread around it. The artery may be secured by 
means of small forceps or even with a hook made by bending a 
pin or piece of wire. 

In some cases haemorrhage can be easily controlled by a 
tight bandage placed above or below the wound. If the blood 
flows in a steady stream the bandage should be on the side far- 
thest from the heart. If it flows in jets the bandage should be 
tied between the wound and the heart. 

Sewing. — Comparatively few wounds are materially bene- 
fited by sewing, bandaging or washing except in professional 
hands. If the wound is made lengthwise of the muscle there 
may be considerable advantage in holding the sides together by 
sewing. No special form of needle or thread is necessary ex- 
cept that both should be clean, and the latter should be of rea- 



76 



PATHOLOGY. 



sonable size. A darning needle and ordinary white cotton thread 
or twine will do very well in an emergency. But if the wound 
is made across the muscle and gaps widely, it is usually unwise 
to sew, for the sutures will cut out in a few days and make the 
scar much worse than if it had been left alone. 

Bandaging.' — Occasionally a wound is such that the edges 
can be held together by means of bandages. If this can be done, 
there may be considerable advantage in so doing, but these wounds 
are rare. Bandages must be changed frequently and the wound 
kept clean. 

Washing- Few of these 
wounds are benefited by wash- 
ing or other external treatment. 
If a wound is such that pus can 
drain from it freely and as rap- 
idly as formed, there is little to 
be gained by washing. If on the 
contrary there are deep recesses 
or pockets from which the pus 
cannot drain, then the wound 
must be so altered that these 
pockets will drain or else they 
must be washed out, otherwise 
the pus may burrow deeper. 

Carbolic acid is commonly 
used so dilute that it is without 
effect. When used strong enough 
to be distinctly antiseptic it be- 
comes injurious to the wound 
surface. If washing is neces- 
sary, use warm water containing a trace of salt, just enough salt 
so that it can be tasted. This is efficient and not injurious. In 
any case the wound surface must not be rubbed over during the 
process of washing. 

Dry treatment.' — Sometimes quicker and better results can 
be obtained by the use of nonirritating and stringent antiseptic 
powder; for instance, the following: iodoform, boracic acid, and 
tannic acid, in equal parts. This may be dusted over the surface 
once daily to produce an artificial scab. 




FIG. 



31. BADLY TREATED WIRE 
WOUND. (.M. H. R.) 



WOUNDS. 77 

Maggots. — This trouble can usually be prevented in small 
wounds by smearing the following - mixture around the border: 
turpentine i part, tar 3 parts, fish oil 2 parts. If a wound be- 
comes infested with maggots use chloroform. This may be ap- 
plied either by spraying or by throwing it in small drops from 
a sponge. 

Suggestions. — Wounds frequently heal more rapidly and 
perfectly in open air than in the stable, because there is more 
ammonia in the air of the stable, and injurious germs are more 
abundant. Healing of some wounds is retarded by exercise and 
such patients should be kepi in the stable. 



LECTURE XVIII. 
CAUSES AND PREVENTION OF DISEASE. 

CONTAGIUM. 

Definition. — Living germs which constitute the specific and 
primary cause of certain diseases and which may be transmitted 
from one animal to another. An outbreak of disease may be 
enzootic (local), or epizootic (widely spread). 

Description. — Bacteria are vegetable microorganisms. Each 
individual consists of a single cell. They are of almost infinite 
number of species and varieties, and are present in the atmosphere 
in particles of room dust; in drinking water; in the soil and in 
fact, almost everywhere in great abundance. 

Size. — They are extremely small, requiring the highest pow- 
ers of the microscope to make them distinctly visible. It is esti- 
mated that millions may live comfortably in a single drop of fluid. 
An average bacillus is from 1-25000 to 2-25000 of an inch long. 

Motion. — Some of these little plants have positive motility, 
others have no true motility ; many of them have a peculiar dan- 
cing motion (Brownian motion). 

Nutrition. — Bacteria use for their food, the chemical ele- 
ments, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen, phosphorous, and 
sulphur. Like higher beings, they vary in their likes and dislikes. 
What is wholesome for one may be very injurious to another. 
Each species has its certain conditions of moisture, temperature 
and chemical reaction which are most favorable. 

Reproduction. — These little beings reproduce by fission and 
by spore formation. If the fission is incomplete they remain in 
chains. The spore is the hardy resistant form and corresponds 
imperfectly to seed formation of higher plants. It is estimated 
that one individual may increase to 1,176,570 in 10 hours. 

Plagues in history. — Throughout all the pages of history, 
we have records of fearful plagues among men and animals. 
About 1500 years before Christ a great plague of murrain swept 
through Egypt and made a great slaughter of cattle. We are 



CONTAGIUM 79 

told concerning the plague at Athens, 430 B. C, that dead men, 
dead animals, and dead birds lay in piles on the streets, and even 
the temple floors were covered with bodies. 

Plagues recur at intervals through the history of the city of 
Rome. About 453 B. C. an outbreak, possibly anthrax, destroyed 
nearly one-half the population of Rome, as well as their cattle, 
and the outbreak spread extensively through what is now Italy. 
A widespread outbreak of anthrax occurred in France and Bel- 
gium, 591 A. D. This same disease is said to have spread all 
over Europe again about 1750. Cattle plague was carried into 
England in 1745, and the loss was very heavy. This outbreak 
lasted for several years in various parts of Europe, and the loss 
cannot be estimated. Tuberculosis has long been prevalent. 
These are all contagious diseases and are caused by bacteria. 
The above are but isolated examples of an indefinite number of 
outbreaks of various diseases which have appeared among do- 
mestic animals. 

How scattered. — Germs of diseases are scattered by a very 
great many agencies, for instance, the germs of hog cholera are 
disseminated by means of the diseased carcasses, hog racks, stock 
cars, and they may be easily transferred by the shoes or clothing 
of persons who walk through an infected yard. Dogs undoubt- 
edly serve to scatter this disease over wide areas, and possibly 
birds. It is possible, also, for the germs to be scattered upon 
particles of dust and litter in high winds. Watering troughs, 
tanks, ponds and sluggish streams are all common sources for 
spreading infectious diseases. 

Development of outbreaks. — It seems to be true of several, 
and possibly so of a great many diseases, that the germs may be 
present with the animal or his surroundings but not virulent 
enough to produce disease. Under favorable conditions and per- 
haps after passing through the bodies of several susceptibLe ani- 
mals in succession they may increase in virulence sufficently to 
produce disease. 

Some of the germs producing diseases of domestic animals 
are believed to live for very long periods of time and possibly 
even vegetate outside the animal body, possibly upon or within 
the tissues of plants. Some germs, especially in the resisting or 
spore stage, may live for very long periods of time, and under very 



80 CAUSES AND PREVENTION OF DISEASE. 

unfavorable conditions retain virulence. For example, the spores 
of anthrax. 

Some outbreaks of infectious diseases appear very suddenly, 
with the most virulent and rapidly fatal cases appearing earliest 
in the outbreak. The outbreak then gradually loses virulence, 
the last cases being of a decidedly chronic nature, and some of 
them possibly recovering. This is frequently illustrated in hog 
cholera. It is possible, however, that before the virulent form 
was noticed, that there may have been a series of very mild cases, 
the animals not being appreciably sick, but the germs in passing 
through susceptible bodies greatly increased in virulence until 
they were able to produce a rapidly fatal type of the disease. 

• COCGACEAE 

mm BACT&RIACEAE 

— j SPIRILLACErAE- TYP&S 

r 

FIG. 32. GENERAL GROUPS OF BACTERIA. DIAGRAMMATIC. (M. H. R.) 

Body entrance. — Germs gain entrance through the respiratory 
organs with the inspired air ; through the digestive organs ; 
through cuts or scratches in the skin and mucous membranes, and 
rarely infection occurs before birth. 

Method of injury. — Germs cause injury and disease in at 
least two different ways, first, by rapid multiplication, and me- 
chanical presence in inconceivable numbers. As an example of 
disease caused by germs in this way, at least partly by mechanical 
presence, we have actinomycosis (lumpy jaw). Second, germs 
which by chemical action may produce intensely poisonous sub- 
stances in the blood and body tissues. As an example of this we 
have tetanus and diphtheria. 

How destroyed in nature. ■ — Nature disposes of disease 
germs in a variety of ways, principally by oxidation, by the de- 
vitalizing effect of sunlight, and they are scattered over wide areas 
and enormously diluted by the wind and water. 

Classification. — Germs are classified into general families ac- 
cording to form, multiplication, presence or absence of sheath 



CONTAGIUM. 81 

and whether motile or not. There are at least three general fam- 
ily types of bacteria: Coccaceae, Bacteriaceae, and Spirillaceae. 
Two of these general groups (coccaceae, and bacteriaceae) con- 
tain most of the species that are known to cause diseases of do- 
mestic animals. 

First, Coccaceae. — These are spherical. They multiply in 
from one to three different planes and are grouped accordingly 
in chains ; in masses extending in two directions ; and in masses 
extending in three directions. Under the microscope these little 
g-erms appear as round dots. A great many of the most com- 
mon diseases are caused by germs which belong to this general 
family. For instance, erysipelas and various types of blood pois- 
oning, abscesses and sloughing. 

Second, Bacteriaceae. — These are short rod-shaped germs, 
and include two especially important genera, Bacillus and Bac- 
terium. Among the common diseases of live stock, which are 
caused by germs belonging to this general family, there may be 
given as illustrations tuberculosis, hog cholera, swine plague, 
glanders, tetanus (lock jaw, and haemorrhagic septicaemia. 

Third, Spirillaceae. — This group is not especially important 
in veterinary medicine. The individuals are rod shaped, curved 
or spiril and may be very short or very long. The specific cause 
•of Asiatic fever (human) belongs in this general group. 



LECTURE XIX. 
DISINFECTION. 

Purpose. — In veterinary practice, disinfection is intended to 
check the spread of infectious diseases, and to protect from fur- 
ther infection animals which may be already diseased. 

Sources of infection. — In any process of disinfection it is 
important to know something concerning' the nature of the in- 
fecting germ, and the sources from which it comes. Germs of 
diseases are spread in a great variety of ways. For instance, 
with the body fluids of sick animals ; by soiled water or food or 
by any contaminated matter. Air may be contaminated from 
the skin and lungs of diseased animals. The soil may be con- 
taminated by the burial of diseased animals or by the deposit of 
any infectious material upon the surface. In any such case, germs 
may be washed to ponds, sluggish streams or shallow wells thus 
contaminating the water. Hides, offal, and even the hair of a 
diseased animal may be a source of spreading disease. Railway 
stood may be disinfected by having straw burned over it, and 
for safety should be removed to a depth of at least six inches 
and replaced with fresh earth. Paved flooring may be disin- 
fected by burning over it any inflammable material. Cracks 
should be disinfected by free use of corrosive sublimate solution. 
Food which may have been contaminated should ordinarily be de- 
stroyed, but in some cases such food may be given to non-suscep- 
tible animals. Drinking places should be disinfected, also curry 
combs, brushes and everything of that sort. 

Must be thorough. — Disinfection is not reliable and should 
not be depended upon unless done most thoroughly. 

Attendants. — Attendants for sick animals should be very 
careful about their clothing, particularly trousers and shoes. It 
is well to use special overalls and overshoes which should be left 
at the infected stall or building. 

Dogs, rats and any of the smaller animals which are liable to 
convey the disease should be guarded against. 



DISINFECTION. 8S 

"How to Burn a Carcass."* — Dig- a cross-shaped trench 
about nine inches deep in the center, becoming shallow toward the 
edges; about seven feet long each way, and 9 or 10 inches deep. 
The earth is thrown in the angles ; two bars of iron are placed 
across for a bridge and upon them the fuel is placed. The trunk 
of the carcass is placed upon the fuel, then another layer of fuel, 
then the internal organs, and limbs of the carcass, and finally an- 
other layer of wood. The cross-shaped trench gives a draft — no 
matter which way the wind may be blowing. 

DISINFECTANTS. 

Alcohol. — This is considered unreliable, not strong enough 
in its germ destroying properties, but useful for certain purposes, 
particularly as an aid in disinfecting greasy surfaces. 

Carbolic acid. — Pure carbolic acid is usually seen in the 
form of light colored crystals, sometimes slightly red. As sold 
in the drug stores it is usually liquified by the addition of 5 to 8 
per cent of water. It is soluble in water up to about 6 per cent. 
This is one of the most commonly used and most reliable disin- 
fectants. It is objectionable in being quite poisonous ; but it does 
not destroy clothing or corrode metals like corrosive sublimate. 
The best antidote is probably alcohol for internal poisoning or 
for external burns. Alcohol may be given in large doses for this 
purpose. For disinfection, use as 5% solution. 

Crude carbolic acid was formerly a very valuable disinfect- 
ant, and cheap, but it has fallen into discredit because some of 
that put on the market in later years has been robbed of its dis- 
infecting properties in the manufacture of various proprietary dis- 
infectants. 

Creolin. — This is supposed to be a combination of crude car- 
bolic acid with soap. It is a dark brown, rather thick liquid, and 
makes a milky emulsion with water, used in 5 to 10 per cent so- 
lution. 

Formalin. — A very important disinfectant, either as a liquid 
or when vaporized. It is in the market as a 40 per cent solution 
of formaldehyde gas. The odor is very irritating and disagree- 
able, resembling somewhat chlorine. Formalin is apparently more 
active in the presence of moisture. For use in vapor form, at 

♦Method recommended by Dr. F. Smith. 



84 CAUSES AND PREVENTION OF DISEASE. 

least 20 ounces per 1,000 cubic feet, should be introduced rapidly 
into a tight room. Glycerine or borax should be added in the re- 
tort. 

Fire. — The most reliable disinfectant, and the one that should 
be invariably used where an article may be destroyed. 

Moist heat. — More active and reliable than dry heat at same 
temperature. Boiling temperature for an hour will probably de- 
stroy any known disease germs, including spbres, although the 
spores of several nonpathogenic organisms resist much longer. 
It has the further advantage of not destroying the article disin- 
fected. 

Corrosive sublimate. — This is sold in the form of white crys- 
tals or powder. It dissolves in about 16 parts of water and its 
solubility can be increased by alcohol, muratic acid or iodide of 
potash. It is disinfectant in the proportion of 1 to 2000 (about 
3/4 grains to a pint of water) and destroys germs in even more 
dilute solution. A very convenient solution can be made by dis- 
solving it in alcohol in the proportion of 1 to 8, then a teaspoonful 
of this to a quart of water gives a 1 to 2000 solution. It should be 
borne in mind that corrosive sublimate is dangerously poisonous ; 
that it coagulates albumin, and corrodes and destroys metals. 

Sulphur. — This agent, when burned, has long been used for 
disinfectant purposes, but is probably not as valuable as is gen- 
erally supposed. If a very large quantity of sulphur is used, after 
the surfaces to be disinfected have been moistened by steam or 
otherwise and doors and windows kept tightly closed for a long 
period of time, then it seems to have more decided germ destroy- 
ing properties. There is needed about 10 pounds per 1000 cubic 
feet of air. This may be easily burned by the addition of about 
three or four ounces of alcohol, the whole being placed in an iron 
kettle, and that in a tub of boiling water, partly for safety and 
partly for moisture. The interior of a building can be fairly well 
moistened by throwing heated stones or irons into tubs of boiling 
water, or by force pump, hose and spray nozzle. 

Sunshine. — Destroys germs. Whenever sufficient time may 
be had, infected clothing or any article to be disinfected, espe- 
cially where the infection is on the surface, can be rendered safe 
by long exposure to sunshine. 



LECTURE XX. 

CAUSES AND PREVENTION OF DISEASE. 

HEREDITY. 

Definition. — The great law of inheritance that "like tends to 
produce like." This tendency may apply to any peculiarity. Her- 
edity may appear as a factor in the cause of disease when actual 
disease germs are transmitted, which is probably rare, or when a. 
local weakness, general susceptibility, appears, which is favorable 
to the development of disease. 

Theory. — The modern idea of heredity in relation to disease 
is that the thing actually inherited is usually only a tendency or 
a lessened resistance. This may refer to the white corpuscles and 
serum of the blood as well as to muscle and tendon or bone cells. 

This theory of lessened resistance applies to spavins, bad eyes 
and certain internal diseases alike. Under favorable conditions 
the actual development of disease may not occur. 

A stallion with defective eyes is apt to sire colts with bad 
eyes. Mares with curby or spavined hocks are apt to raise colts 
with bad hocks. In rare cases the young is born with the actual 
disease preseent. 

The suggestion is obvious. Breed from naturally sound ani- 
mals, and it should be borne in mind that a fat animal is not neces- 
sarily a sound or healthy animal. Domestic animals in show con- 
dition may be diseased either internally or externally. 

In and in breeding. — This frequently tends toward physical 
decay, infertility, tendency to abortion and various diseases of 
lUngs and eyes. In human family it tends toward idiocy, freaks, 
consumption and a variety of diseases. Statistics are meager 
but essential facts are very plain as to the relation of heredity to 
animal and human diseases. 



86 CAUSES AND PREVENTION OF DISEASE. 

AIR. 

Air is a very frequent source of disease. Composition in a 
general way: — oxygen 1-5, nitrogen 4-5; more accurately, oxygen 
20.97%, nitrogen 79.% and CO2, .03%. 

Impurities in air are either organic or inorganic. They are 
taken care of by nature through diffusion, oxidation, sunlight, 
and plant life activity. 

Organic impurities in air are germs of several hundred dif- 
ferent kinds ; scales and debris of epithelium, hair, sputum, dried 
manure, dried pus, and various matters from sewer pipes and 
marshy grounds. 

Inorganic impurities are abundant ; e. g., bits of various solid 
particles which may travel great distances. 

Relation to disease. — Diseases related to impure air are 
many and serious; e. g., total mortality among French cavalry 
horses was formerly as high as 18% to 20%, but reduced by ven- 
tilation and better sanitary conditions to 7%. Farcy in the Eng- 
lish cavalry used to be exceedingly common, but is now rare. In 
1857 there was a serious outbreak of influenza that coird not be 
■checked until certain stables were cleaned and ventilated. 

Horses' lungs have 289 feet of air absorbing surface or five 
times the skin area. They may contain at one time 1.5 feet of 
air. Horses at rest may give off 6.5 to 7.5 cubic feet of CO2 
■every hour. 

Air begins to get foul and dangerous when oxygen is reduced 
to 20.6%, or taking another means of estimating, air begins to be 
foul when CO2 goes above .05%. 

Carbon dioxide is most abundant close to the ground, be- 
cause heavy. It is not very poisonous in small quantities of itself, 
hut serious because of the poisonous inorganic impurities with 
which it is associated. It is rapidly fatal when it constitutes 
more than one per cent, of total air. Its effects on animals, 
when in excess, are : decrease of arterial pressure, supplants oxy- 
gen in blood, causes paralysis of heart, and causes overwork, then 
failure of the lungs. 

Hydrogen sulphide may also be present in the air. Four 
per cent, is fatal to horses. It causes diarrhoea and extreme 
weakness. 



HEREDITY AND AIR. 87 

Nitrogen is nearly negative in effect. It dilutes oxygen and 
CO2. 

Ammonia in air must also be regarded as an impurity so far 
as animal life is concerned, mainly because of the organic mat- 
ters with which it associates. Such organic matters adhere to 
ceiling, walls, harness, floors, etc. 

Ventilation. — Ventilation, therefore, is very important and 
should be thorough. Accomplishes two purposes : admits oxy- 
gen, dilutes and removes impurities. Good ventilation implies 
rapid change in air of the stable without direct draughts upon 
confined animals. Each mature cow or horse should have about 
1,500 cubic feet of air and this should be renewed frequently 
(see lecture on ventilation). 

Sunshine is equally important, for sunshine is nature's uni- 
versal disinfectant, killing more or less rapidly germs of disease 



LECTURE XXI. 
CAUSES AND PREVENTION OF DISEASES. 

FOOD. 

Food may be a factor in animal disease when excessive in 
amount, insufficient, too concentrated, too coarse, bulky and in- 
nutritious for the animal that receives it ; poor in quality ; when 
given in a poorly balanced ration or at irregular or improper 
intervals ; when given a very tired or hot animal ; when carrying 
vegetable or animal parasites ; or when suddenly changed ; e. g., 
poor to rich pasture and when poisonous. 

Excessive amount. — Common tendency to overfeed, results 
in azoturia, heaves, colic, etc., among horses; milk fever, etc., 
among cows, and favors the development of all febrile diseases. 
Only a certain amount can be absorbed or used, the remainder 
causes trouble. 

Deficiency predisposes to all diseases that are favored by a 
lessened vitality. Glanders and similar diseases are especially 
apt to occur or to increase in severity among horses that are 
poorly fed. Deficiency in food mineral matters predisposes to- 
ward certain diseases of bone. Deficiency of albumin results 
in loss of energy and strength and animals so fed are apt to be 
languid and weak. 

Coarse, bulky and innutritions food may cause colic, indi- 
gestion, heaves and impactions, especially apt to cause trouble 
with animals with small stomachs; e. g., horse. 

Poor quality, e. g., hay cut too ripe or rained on after cut, 
light oats, etc. Objections same as deficiency, also favors colic, 
impactions and anaemia. 

A food may be poorly balanced and dangerous though very 
nutritious ; e. g., beans, wheat, oil meal and cotton seed meal 
contain alone too much protein and not enough ash, fat and car- 
bohydrates. When fed in the unbalanced ration such excess of 
protein may cause febrile disturbances, diarrhoea, congestion of 
the liver, azoturia and milk fever. A similar excess of carbo- 



FOOD AND WATER. 89 

hydrates or fats may cause an injurious deposition of fat under 
the skin ; into and between the fibers of voluntary muscles, or 
in the heart and liver ; e. g., fatty degeneration of the liver. 
Excess of fats causes diarrhoea and checks absorption. 

Faulty intervals interfere with digestion and thrift, may 
cause such disorders as colic and impaction. Cow may be fed at 
longer intervals than horse ; but both should be fed regularly. 
A horse that goes a long time without food and then gets abund- 
ance is apt to have colic. 

Vegetable parasites, like bunt, smut, rust, ergot and mildew 
may cause abortions, diabetes and anaemia. 

Animal parasites infest several foods ; lessen their food value 
and cause skin troubles. 

Sudden changes, from poor to rich pastures favor anthrax, 
hoven, impaction, and black leg. 

Class differences. — Some animals may eat with impunity 
what others cannot. Rich cereals may cause laminitis in horse ; — - 
not in cow. Pigs can eat acorns freely, but they are injurious 
to other animals. 

WATER. 

Water may be a factor in animal disease when excessive in 
amount or deficient, when containing low forms of vegetable 
life, when containing low forms of animal life, when it has re- 
ceived sewage matter, when very hard; e. g., containing much 
calcium and magnesium salts, when given at improper intervals 
or soon after eating, or when given in large quantities to a very 
hot or tired horse. 

Excessive amount lessens the digestibility of foods, causes 
an increased tissue waste and favors indigestion. Horses that 
have been excessive drinkers are frequently more thrifty, and 
will keep on less food when given less water. 

Deficient water supply may cause impactions in cattle and 
lessen the excretions from skin and kidneys in horses. Horses 
need about 2 gallons and cows giving milk about 4 gallons of 
water per pound of dry food; i. e., horse needs in fall and win- 
ter about four to six gallons and in summer about eight to ten 
gallons per day, the amount varying according to diet and con- 
dition of the atmosphere. Cows need much more than horses 
in proportion to weight and feed, and can be usually trusted to 

Vet. Studies— 6. 



90 CAUSES AND PREVENTION OF DISEASE. 

drink at their own pleasure. Horses will frequently drink too 
much, especially when tired or hot. 

Vegetable parasites frequently contaminate drinking water, 
and in this way water may serve as a source of transmission for 
many of the germ diseases, e. g., anthrax, foot and mouth disease, 
hog cholera, and glanders. 

Animal parasites often contaminate the water supply, and in 
this way serve to spread diseases which they cause, e. g., intes- 
tinal parasites, which injure the health of many animals, especially 
young ones. 

Sezvage matter may get into drinking water from various 
sources and cause abortions and poison the system in many ways 
that may result in different diseases. 

Hard water may contain much calcium, magnesium, etc., 
and cause indigestion, unthrifty conditions, perhaps bony tumors 
and calculi. Although the latter statement rests on little evi- 
dence. 

Intervals may be wrong. Horses should be watered regu- 
larly and at short intervals as convenient. They should be wa- 
tered before feeding as a rule and should not be given large 
quantities of water, sooner than one hour after eating grain. 
Not so important with cows whether they be watered before or 
after eating. Much cold water interferes with digestion and 
when given to a very hot or tired horse may result in founder 
or indigestion. 



LECTURE XXII. 
CAUSE AND PREVENTION OF DISEASE. 
PARASITISM. 

Parasitism may be mutual or selfish, temporary or perma- 
nent, external or internal. 

Mutual parasitism is one in which both organisms are bene- 
fited. 

Selfish parasitism is where one party is benefited, the other 
injured. This is the kind we usually deal with in medicine. 

Temporary when only a portion of the parasite's life history 
is with or upon the host. 

Permanent when its whole life history is with the same host. 

External or internal; i. e., affecting the body surface or af- 
fecting the internal organs. 

General classes. — In studying diseases of domestic animals, 
we deal mainly with two general classes : worms and arthropodes. 

Worms. — Invertebrates with soft contractile bodies, either 
composed of similar rings or non-articulated ; excretory organs 
in pairs opening externally. Members of this group affect many 
of the internal organs and superficial parts as well. 

Arthropodes. — Invertebrates, limbs jointed, bodies composed 
of dissimilar rings. In this group also we find both external 
and internal parasites. 

Sources and causes of parasitic diseases. — Parasites may be 
received into the digestive apparatus with food or drink ; they 
may gain entrance through the respiratory tract ; through the 
broken skin, or there may be external infection by contact. 

Predisposing causes. — Species of host ; age of host ; condi- 
tion of host; season of year and climate. Most animal parasites 
are enormously prolific, but very many eggs and immature forms 
are destroyed. Others never reach their proper host. Female 
louse may become ancestor of 10.000 lice in eight weeks; female 
itch mite may be ancestor of 1,000,000 in three months, or a 
certain tape worm will furnish 150,000,000 eggs in oue year. 



92 CAUSES AND PREVENTION OF DISEASE. 

How nourished. — Parasites usually live on the exudate or 
excretion which results from their presence. Some have mouth 
and digestive organs ; e. g., round worms of the intestines. Oth- 
ers receive their nourishment by surface absorption or osmosis; 
e. g., tape worms. 

Effect on health of host depends on the organ or organs 
invaded ; the rapidity of multiplication ; the amount of nutrition 
used by parasite, and amount of irritation caused.. 

Intestinal parasites cause trouble by obstruction ; by irritat- 
ing and abstracting blood from the mucous membrane; by me- 
chanical irritation, and by using nutrition. Hence we have symp- 
toms of indigestion, colic and unthrift. 

Liver parasites cause jaundice and general anaemia. 

Lung and bronchial parasites cause bronchitis or pneumonia. 

Parasites in the blood vessels cause disease of the vessel walls, 
and may indirectly cause obstructions and colic. 

Parasites in the brain are more rare and usually fatal. 

Parasites in muscular tissue may cause little disturbance to 
the animal host ; but be very serious to human health ; e. g., pig 
measles, trichina, actinomycosis (lumpy-jaw). 

General prevention. —Parasitism would be impossible if ev- 
erything that comes in contact with the animal body were free 
from parasites. Saddles, harness, blankets, posts and fences are 
the usual agents which spread Texas itch or mange among 
horses, and round intestinal worms generally gain entrance in 
the egg or immature form, with the water drank. Ponds, wells 
which receive surface drainage, sluggish streams and marshes, 
should therefore be regarded with suspicion. Sound animals 
should not be allowed in sheds, yards or barns where animals 
diseased by external parasites, like lice or scab mites, have been, 
until such structures have been disinfected. Dogs are danger- 
ous factors in sheep pastures, because of the tapeworms which 
they furnish to sheep. Intestinal worms which appear in the 
manure of horses should be destroyed with boiling water, — not 
merely crushed and thrown away. 

General treatment. — Medical treatment must be such as will 
destroy or remove the parasites. Medicines may aid us in re- 
moving parasites, by suffocating them ; e. g., as with oils ; by 
intoxication of the parasites ; or by caustic or irritating chem- 
ical effect on the bodies of the parasites. Many parasites dis- 



PARASITISM. 93 

appear by means of their own activity and habits ; e. g., ticks, 
bots in horses, grubs in backs of cattle, and grubs in the nasal 
passages and head cavities of sheep. It is well to remember 
also that many parasites can resist stronger medicines than the 
organs or tissues they invade; e. g., bots in the horse's stomach. 

EXTERNAL PARASITES. 

Most serious are the mite diseases : itch, mange, and sheep 
scab, lice, ticks and ringworms. 

Mite diseases (acariasis). — The various forms of itch or 
mange in horses, cattle, and hogs ; scab in sheep ; scabies in cats 
and dogs are all similar in cause, contagiousness, prevention, dam- 
age done and in treatment. 





FIG. 33. MANGE MITE. FIG. 34. CATTLE LOUSE. 

The cause of one form of horse FEMALE, 

mange. Psoroptes communis equi. Haematopinus eurystemus. 

Causes. — Three types of mites, or acari, affect man and the 
lower animals, all very small: (a) sarcoptes, (b) psoroptes, (c) 
symbiotes. 

Sarcoptes burrow channels and live in or beneath the cuticle. 
The eggs are laid and young hatched in these channels. These 
mites may live 14 days in ordinary stables on harness, blankets, 
or woodwork. 

Psoroptes live on skin surface. They can move around on 
the surface and spread rapidly. 

Symbiotes affect regions near the feet and move about very 
little. 

Diagnosis is made on the condition of the skin, which bo- 
comes dry and wrinkled or leathery with hairs partly gone ; in- 



94 CAUSES AND PREVENTION OP DISEASE. 

tense itching and the mites may be found among scales and roots 
of hairs, by standing the patient in the hot sun on the south 
side of a building, or by scraping off some of the diseased skin 
on a piece of black cloth and laying this in the hot sun. The 
mites may then be seen with a lens. 

For the sarcoptes which burrow, it is necessary to scrape 
deeply. These latter will not live so long in the sun as the others. 

General treatment.— For mites the treatment is essentially the 
same among all animals. Scrubbing brush, with soap and warm 
water is a great help and then some application to kill the mites. 
Sheep are dipped, larger animals are usually bathed. Shearing 
of sheep is almost necessary to satisfactory treatment. Clipping 
the larger animals is quite an aid. Treatment must be thorough 
and directions followed. Sheep must go under, head and all. 
For treating mange in cattle or horses the old fashioned lard 
and sulphur, freely applied and repeated several times if nec- 
essary at intervals of 8 to 10 days is very satisfactory, having 
given good satisfaction where coal tar preparations have failed. 
The latter are usually satisfactory, however, if used in sufficient 
strength. 

General prevention of all forms of acariasis is merely the 
prevention of a skin infection. Generous feeding is a good pre- 
vention for many of the parasitic diseases, because it does not 
allow animals like colts and calves to become thin and weak, 
and thus easy subjects for parasitic invasion. Tonics are fre- 
quently valuable to build up strength and increase the resisting 
powers. 



LECTURE XXIII. 

EXTERNAL PARASITES. 

Lice (phthiriasis), treatment. — (i) Bathe the affected parts 
with corrosive sublimate in water 15 grains to the pint; or (2) 
tobacco water (steep for an hour two ounces of tobacco to each 
quart of water) ; or (3) for small surfaces, as mane and root 
of tail, kerosene one part, linseed oil 10 parts; or (4) Prof. 
Riley's kerosene emulsion made as follows : kerosene 2 gallons ; 
soft soap Yi lb. ; water one gallon. Dissolve the soap in water 
by boiling and add kerosene slowly while still boiling. Churn 
ten minutes and dilute by adding 8 times its bulk of water. 
This is cheap, harmless and satisfactory. 





FIG. 35. SHEEP TICK AND ENLARGED PROBOSCIS.. 
Melophagus ovinits. Properly a sheep louse. 

Any treatment for lice should be repeated several times at 
intervals of one week. It is frequently advisable to whitewash 
stalls and sheds. All harboring litter should be removed and 
burned. Clipping is a great aid in the treatment of external 
parasitism. 

It is difficult to treat sheep successfully for either lice or 
scab without shearing. 

For cattle, horses and young stock, in cold weather dust 



96 CAUSES AND PREVENTION OF DISEASE. 

into the hair along neck, back and rump, Persian insect powder, 
or use solution No. 4, and blanket if stable is cold. A little 
kerosene oil on a root, fiber or bristle brush, used frequently, 
is safe and effective if used with reasonable caution. 

For poultry use whitewash in abundance, and plenty of 
fine air-slaked lime dusted into the nests and on the floor. It 
is a good plan to throw a handful at a time against the wall so 
that it will float in the air and then gradually settle down into 
crevices and over the poultry. Or spray kerosene over the walls 
and ceiling and wash perches frequently with kerosene. This 
is cheap, rapidly applied, and very effective. Give constant ac- 
cess to dust bath of dust or sifted ashes, air-slaked lime, sulphur 
and Persian insect powder. Keep poultry house dry. 

Other External Parasites. 

Ticks are effectually destroyed by oily preparations ; e. g., 
No. 3 or 4 after shearing. 

Ring worm appears most 
commonly on heads and necks of 
cattle, especially calves ; but man 
and all domestic animals are also 
subject. It is caused by a vege- 
table parasite. 

FIG. 36. HORSE BOT FLY AND TT ... . 

larva ^ se scrubbing brush, soap and 

Gastropiiiius cqui. Larva in the warm water, then apply every 

third stage. ,. 

other day 10 per cent, carbolic 
acid in glycerine, or tincture of iodine and tincture of iron, equal 
parts. 

INTERNAL PARASITES. 

The most common internal parasites are round worms, flat 
worms and bots. 

Bots. — Medical treatment has not proven satisfactory. 

Nematodes (round worms). — For the pin worms in horse, 
empty the rectum by means of warm water injections and then 
use warm rectal injections of astringent and bitter medicines, 
like a very mild solution of copperas or a strong tea made of 
quassia chips. Repeat once daily for two or three days, and 
follow with an oily physic ; e. g., one quart of raw linseed oil. 




PARASITISM. 



97 



For the long white worms the treatment must be vigorous 
and continued. Use three times daily either (i) or (2) as fol- 
lows: 

(1) Arsenious acid 5 to 10 grains, for ten days, beginning 
with the smaller dose and increasing gradually to the larger. 
On the nth day give linseed oil 1 pint and Croton oil 30 drops. 
Shake well. The arsenious acid to be well mixed with damp 
food. 




FIG. 37- HORSE BOTS AND BOT FLY. 
(B. A. I.) 
The eggs are deposited on the hairs 
during the fall. They are taken off by 
the tongue; hatch and develop in the 
stomach, into the bots (larvae). 






Or (2) give a cathartic of one quart of linseed oil, feed 
little or no hay for four days, then give 2 ounces of turpentine 
in one quart linseed oil on the 5th clay and repeat on the 6th. 
Repeat this whole process beginning on the 16th clay, if the first 
treatment does not seem effective. 

For more extended study of internal parasites see "Common 
Diseases." 

Tape Worms, (Hat worms). — Most serious in sheep, winch 
are infested by at least eight species. 

Treatment can only be useful before weakness begins. For 
large lambs and vearlings, give no food the night before ; then 



98 



CAUSES AND PREVENTION OF DISEASE. 



give each in the morning two drams of ethereal oil of male fern 
in 2 to 4 ounces castor oil. 

Or after fasting, give to each sheep powdered areca-nut 2 
drams ; oil of male fern i dram in 4 ounces of syrup, follow 
by four to six ounces of castor oil the next day. For older sheep 
give from a half more to twice these doses. 




FIG. 38. A COMMON TAPE WORM OF SHEEP. (Curtice.) 

Taenia, expansa. 

1. Head and Neck. A, A, Suckers; B, B, folds in neck; C, C, first seg- 
ments. 

2. Head and Body, Showing Segments. A, Head. 



For intestinal worms in swine, santonine 5 grain dose repeat- 
ed if necessary, or 25 drops turpentine three times a day. 



LECTURE XXIV. 

STOCK POISONING. 

It is probably safe to say that stock poisoning, except by 
poisonous plants, is very rare. Occasionally cattle are poisoned 
by taking boiled linseed oil or eating Paris green; horses are 
sometimes poisoned by boiled linseed oil, given by mistake as 
a medicine. 

BY POISONOUS PLANTS. 

General considerations.- — Poisoning by plants quite often oc- 
curs early in the season, or when stock is put on pasture to which 
they have not been accustomed, and especially when the animals 
are hungry at the time of change. The effects seem to depend 
to a considerable extent upon the amount of food in the stom- 
ach and upon the physical condition of the animals. Hungry 
stock may eat plants which would not ordinarily be taken at all, 
and the total amount eaten has very much to do with the serious- 
ness of the illness. 

Cottonseed meal has an undeservedly bad reputation. It is 
very probable that the trouble for which it has been blamed, is 
due to the error of using too large a proportion of this food, 
which is very rich in nitrogenous elements, and not to any poison 
which it contains. 

Three groups. — Poisonous plants may be divided into three 
groups. First, those causing very sudden death — such as sor- 
ghum and wild cherry leaves, which contain prussic acid. Sec- 
ond, the irritating poisons, such as the bracken fern, water hem- 
lock, wild parsnip and wild mustard. Third, poisons which pro- 
duce profound disturbance of the nervous system, such as paraly- 
sis, interference with the special senses, delirium, disturbed heart 
action, and insensibility. Among these are included jimson weed,. 
loco weed, poison hemlock, wild parsnip, larkspur and laurel. 



L 



100 CAUSES AND PREVENTION OF DISEASE. 

SORGHUM. 

The information concerning sorghum plant poisoning is com- 
paratively new and there are many points concerning which more 
information is needed. There seems to be abundant evidence that 
stock, particularly cattle, may be poisoned to a very serious ex- 
tent by eating sorghum plants, especially plants that are not of 
vigorous growth. 

Symptoms. — Those who have had a chance to study these 
cases report that the principal symptoms are stupor, discharge 
from the eyes, unsteady walk, jerking of the muscles, and poor 
circulation. The pupils are frequently dilated and the skin lacks 
.sensation. 

Treatment. — Animals poisoned by sorghum usually die so 
suddenly that treatment is out of the question ; the poison being 
prussic acid, one of the most active poisons. 

Prevention. — This trouble occurs especially when the stock 
is first put into the field. The trouble can usually be avoided 
by first testing the safety of the food by putting in one animal 
for a few hours, and if no harm is noticed then the entire herd 
can be turned in and as a rule — with safety. 

EQUISETUM (Equisetum arvense), 

This plant is commonly called jointed rush, pine top, colt's 
tail, etc. It is a very common weed growing especially on damp, 
sandy or gravelly soils. It is probable that poisoning from hay 
containing this plant is much more common th^n is usually sup- 
posed. 

Susceptible animals. —Horses are especially susceptible to the 
poisoning from this plant, and the younger horses are more 
susceptible than older ones. Cattle do not seem to be poisoned 
by it. 

Symptoms. — The horse is unthrifty, becoming very poor and 
weak, with imperfect control of the hind legs. The appetite may 
be good, but the horse refuses to lie down, as a rule, until very 
late in the history of the case. He struggles a great deal after 
going down, and finally dies — worn out from the struggling. 
The pulse is slower than normal until very late in the case. 
Temperature is normal or below, until the struggling causes 
both it and the pulse to rise. (Rich.) 



POISONOUS PLANTS. 101 

Conditions affecting activity of the poison. — Old horses are 
less susceptible than younger ones. Horses having good grain 
feed resist longer than those that are insufficiently fed ; the trouble 
seems to be caused almost entirely by the plant when fed with 
the hay, rarely when eaten in a green state. 

Treatment. — Administer a cathartic and remove the cause of 
trouble by discontinuing the use of the hay containing this 
plant. 

WILD CHERRY LEAVES. 

There are several varieties of wild cherries which cause 
poisoning, particularly choke cherries and black cherries. The 
poisonous property is probably due entirely to prussic acid. The 
common black cherry seems to be far more frequently the cause 
of poisoning than any other species. The leaves that grow on 
succulent shoots seem to be most actively poisonous. They are 
less poisonous when wilted, and there seems to be considerable 
doubt as to whether they are poisonous at all when actually 
dry. 

Symptoms. — These are the ordinary symptoms of prussic 
acid poisoning and develop very rapidly. There is a very weak 
pulse, difficult breathing, expression of fright, with prominent 
eyeballs, rapid breathing and death from paralysis of respiration. 
There is usually a noticeable peach odor in the breath. 

Treatment. — When animals take a fatal amount of the poison, 
death is sudden and there seems to be little use in attempting 
treatment. 



LECTURE XXV. 

POISONOUS PLANTS. 

WOOLLY LOCO WEED, (Astragalus moUissimits) . 

This plant belongs to the pea family and is quite well known, 
especially in the northwestern plains country. "Silvery white, 
silky leaved perennial, eight to twelve inches high, with an abund- 
ance of soft foliage springing out in a cluster from a short cen- 
tral stem close to the ground. The flowers are pea shaped and 
usually purple." (Chestnut.) 

Susceptible animals. — Horses are most seriously injured. 
Cattle and sheep may be affected to some extent, but the finan- 
cial loss with them is not serious. 

STEMLESS LOCO WEED, (Atagallus lambertii). 

This plant is quite different from the preceding, growing 
very erect and with few branches. The leaflets are longer and 
the seed pod has but one cell instead of two. It grows over 
about the same territory as the woolly loco. The symptoms of 
poisoning are apparently identical with those of the woolly loco. 
This plant has about the same range as the preceding — being 
found especially in the northwestern and western range countries. 

Symptoms. — The effect of this poisoning is quite slow in 
its appearance, and there develops in the affected animal some- 
thing of a habit or desire for the weed. 

During the first stage of loco poisoning the horse seems to 
be a little out of balance mentally, and the eye sight is impaired. 
After awhile the horse becomes so fond of this plant, that he 
seems to prefer it to grasses or other food which he might easily 
obtain. 

The second stage is a long period of general atrophy, the 
animal being thin and weak. The hair is dull, and the expres- 
sion is one of feebleness. The total period of illness may last 
from a few months to two years. 



POISONOUS PLANTS. 



103 



Treatment. — The only practical and satisfactory treatment 
is to remove the animal entirely from the range where he can 
secure the plant. 

RATTLE BOX, (Crotalaria sagittalis). 

Description. — This is an annual, growing three to eighteen 
inches high ; the plant is hairy ; the leaves are oval or lanceolate, 
with very short stems, simple and undivided ; flowers resembling 
.somewhat those of the common pea. The pods are very dark 
in color or nearly black, and about one inch in length. When 
dried they are rather hard so that when the seeds have become 
loosened and the pods are shaken it gives quite the effect of a 
rattlebox. 




FIG. 39. POISONOUS PLANTS. (CHESTNUT.) 
"Wooly Loco. Rattlebox. Stemless Loco. 

This plant grows in damp, sandy soils, and over a very 
large section of country especially along the Missouri River. 
At some seasons it causes quite serious loss. The poisonous 
principle has not been demonstrated, but it is apparently held by 
both the seeds and leaves. The loss occurs most frequently when 
stock is fed hay containing the dried plant. The trouble does 
not occur very frequently with animals in pasture. 



104 CAUSES AND PREVENTION OF DISEASE. 

Symptoms. — Symptoms of poisoning are rather slow in de- 
velopment, death coming only after several weeks of gradual 
decline. There have been observed sleepiness, loud and difficult 
breathing, and slow decline. 

The proper treatment is, the removal of the exciting cause, 
and tonics. 

WATER HEMLOCK, (Cicuta maculata), 

Called also wild hemlock, snake weed, and spotted parsley. 

This is an erect perennial, growing three to six feet high. 
The stem is hollow, with numerous branches and rather rigid. 
The flowers are white and the roots are spindle shaped, growing 
in clusters. This plant is found chiefly on damp soils all the 
way from the Atlantic coast to the Rocky Mountains. 

The poison seems to reside chiefly in an oily fluid which 
is found mainly in the root, but other portions of the plant also 
contain the poison to some extent. 

The American water hemlock is one of the most poison- 
ous plants in the United States. Quite a considerable number of 
cases of poisoning, both in animals and human beings, have been 
traced to this plant. It should not be forgotten that it is the 
roots which are especially injurious. 

OREGON" WATER HEMLOCK, {Cicuta vagans), 

This is a smooth growing perennial, with upright or strag- 
gling stems. The plant grows from three to six feet high. The 
leaves are compound, and spring from the ground instead of 
from the stem. It appears commonly on low, marshy ground 
in the extreme western and northwestern portions of the United 
States. The flowers are white, and appear in July and August. 
The root is fleshy and quite characteristic (see figure 40) and 
is especially poisonous. A piece of root stalk as large as a 
walnut is said to be fatal to a mature cow. 

Symptoms. —The most evident symptoms are acute abdom- 
inal pains, difficulty in walking, with vomiting and convulsions. 
This poisoning is very apt to be fatal. 



LECTURE XXVI. 
POISONOUS PLANTS. 

POISON HEMLOCK, (Conium maculatum). 

Description. — This plant came to the United States from 
Europe or Asia. It is now naturalized and quite common in 
the eastern and middle states, but not very common in the Mis- 
sissippi Valley. It is smooth, i. e., not hairy or mealy. The 
stem is hollow; more or less spotted with purple, and the plant 
is a biennial, growing two to seven feet high. The leaves re- 
semble those of parsley, and the flowers grow in showy white 
clusters, appearing in July and August. The leaves have a dis- 
agreeable flavor, and the odor, especially from crushed leaves, is 
also disagreeable. 

The poison. —The active poison is a volatile alkaloid known 
as conine, found in the seeds and leaves. The root is less dan- 
gerous in March, April and May, but becomes very poisonous 
later in the season. 

This plant does not usually grow in great numbers in any 
one pasture or field, but is very actively poisonous, so that it 
does not require the eating of large quantities to insure fatal 
results. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms are those of gradual and pro- 
gressive weakening, especially a loss of physical strength. Sight 
is affected, but the mind is said to remain clear. Death results 
from pulmonary paralysis. In poisoning from water hemlock 
there are usually present convulsions which do not appear in the 
case of poisoning from the true poison hemlock. The symptoms 
of poisoning in cows are especially the profuse flow of saliva, 
bloating, lack of appetite, feebleness and weak pulse and severe 
pain. 

BROAD LEAF LAUREL, (Kaltnia latifolia). 

Commonly called laurel, sometimes mountain laurel, poison 
laurel, sheep laurel, and sometimes poison ivy. 

Vet Studies— 7. 



106 



CAUSES AND PREVENTION OF DISEASE. 



Description. — This is a rather attractive shrub, from four to 
eight feet high; occasionally growing very much higher, with 
thick, shiny leaves and rather showy pink flowers. The flowers 
appear in May or June ; the plant prefers the rough hillsides, and 
mountain slopes of the eastern states. The poisonous principle 
is in all portions of the plant excepting perhaps the wood. It is 
said to be very intensely poisonous. Horses are poisoned experi- 
mentally, but the main losses reported seem to be from cattle 
and sheep. 




FIG. 40. 

Poison Hemlock. 



POISONOUS PLANTS. 

Water Hemlock. 



{CHESTNUT.) 

Oregon Water Hemlock. 



Symptoms. — A mild, persistent vomiting, with flow of sa- 
liva, irregular breathing, impaired sight, dizziness, with diffi- 
culty in controlling the limbs. Irregular respiration is especially 
characteristic. Later there may come on a marked drowsiness, 
passing into complete unconsciousness and death. 

Treatment. — Internal use of a one per cent alkaline solu- 
tion of permanganate of potash has been suggested by V. K. 
Chestnut of the Department of Agriculture. (See "General 
Treatment.") 

The broad leaf laurel may be taken as a type of the fam- 
ily, to which it belongs. There are also the narrow leaf laurel 
and the great laurel, which are reported as occasioning fatal poi- 



POISONOUS PLANTS. 107 

DEATH CAMA OR LOBELIA, (Zygadenus venenosus). 

In some of the states, especially those of the Northwest, 
there is a very serious loss of stock through poisoning by the 
death cama. It has been estimated that in 1900 over 3,000 sheep 
died from this cause in Montana alone. 

Description. — The death cama prefers moist, shallow basins 
and is found in western mountain pastures and on the plains. 
This is a smooth plant with a single stem, resembling the 
onion. It varies in 'height from six inches to two or three feet. 
Under ground there is an onion-like bulb. The flowers form a 
cluster and are yellow or yellowish white. The leaves dry up 
about mid-summer, and after that are not dangerous. Cases 
of poisoning late in the season are presumably due to eating 
the bulb. The poisonous principle apparently resides in the fresh 
stem and the bulb. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms as given by various observers 
are, staggering gait, continuous swallowing motions, difficult or 
irregular breathing and general uneasiness. Later there comes 
a collapse, the animal lying for a long time flat on its side and 
motionless. 

LARKSPURS, (Delphinium), 

Quite a number of species belonging to this order are com- 
mon in this country, and several of them are of serious import- 
ance as sources of stock poisoning. They are erect herbs, with 
elongated clusters of rather showy flowers. The latter are usu- 
ally blue, and have a peculiar projection from which the plant 
gets its name of larkspur. 

Symptoms. — The various species of larkspur are similar in 
their poisonous action. The symptoms resemble those from aco- 
nite poisoning. The characteristic alkaloid of the larkspurs is 
very similar in many respects to the characteristic alkaloid of 
aconite. The physiological effects are also similar. 

Among the noticeable symptoms are : muscular spasms, stiff, 
irregular, straddling walk and persistent swallowing motions. 

Treatment. — The treatment for larkspur poisoning should be 
the same as for aconite. Belladonna or atropia (the alkaloid of 
belladonna) has given very satisfactory results. The dose of 
atropia given with hypodermic syringe is for cattle and horses 
T /2 to i grain and for sheep 1-10 to 1-3 grain. 



108 CAUSES AND PREVENTION OP DISEASE. 

GENERAL TREATMENT. 

What is probably the best general antidote for plant poison- 
ing was developed by Chestnut and Wilcox of the Department 
of Agriculture, and is prepared as follows : 

There is made up a one per cent solution of permanganate 
of potash and a one per cent solution of aluminum sulphate or 
one ounce of each in three quarts water, fully dissolved. The 
permanganate solution must always be made up fresh as needed, 
for it deteriorates very rapidly. It is important that these med- 
icines should be entirely dissolved, especially the permanganate, 
otherwise it settles to the bottom of the dish and might be given 
in the pure state with the last portion administered. 

The single dose for sheep is from 5 to 10 grains ; for a horse 
15 to 20; cattle 30 to 50 grains of each medicine. A single 
dose in this way should be dissolved in from a pint to a quart 
of water. In the case of sheep it is convenient to make up 
larger quantity for the total number to be treated, but if any 
is left unused it must be thrown away. An ounce of the per- 
manganate is sufficient for from 50 to 100 sheep. When made 
up in the bulk as above solution, the dose for cattle is about 8 
ounces ; for horses, 4 ounces ; and for sheep, 1 ounce. 



LECTURE XXVII. 
VENTILATION. 

Purposes. — There are two purposes in ventilation, viz. : get- 
ting fresh air with its oxygen into a stable, and getting impuri- 
ties out, and these are equally important. 

Impurities. — Disease germs and their products, carbonic di- 
oxide gas, various volatile matters from the lungs, together with 
the various excretions and the products which result from their 
chemical decompositions. 

Necessity of ventilation. — To illustrate the effect of poor san- 
itary conditions, particularly lack of ventilation, it is only necessary 
to call attention to the common experience of moving an animal 
affected with a chronic type of glanders or tuberculosis from a well 
lighted and well ventilated stable to one where the conditions are 
the opposite. Under the latter conditions there is rapid develop- 
ment of a disease which had hitherto been mild. It is a com- 
mon experience that accidental and surgical wounds do badly 
in poorly lighted and poorly ventilated stables. 

Sick animals especially need free ventilation. This is par- 
ticularly true in certain diseases, e. g., tetanus and diseases oi 
the lungs. 

A warm barn in a cold climate is not objectionable, pro- 
viding sanitary conditions such as abundant air, sunlight, good 
food and water are provided. But making a barn warm and 
tight may very easily establish an ideal place for the propaga- 
tion of germs and the spread of disease. 

Degree of impurity. — When one goes into a close room or 
stable and does not notice anything of the condition which we 
call closeness, the carbonic dioxide gas will usually be about .3 
per thousand. If the atmosphere seems rather close there is 
ordinarily somewhere near .4 per thousand. If the atmosphere 
seems very close and is offensive, then according to Dr. D'Chau- 
mont, there must be about .9 per thousand. This gas is some- 



110 



CAUSES AND PREVENTION OF DISEASE. 



what objectionable of -itself and is especially important as being 
a reliable guide as to the prevalence of certain organic impuri- 
ties which are more directly and positively harmful. 

Natural forces. — The factors that operate in natural ventila- 
tion are: 

i st. The force of the wind. 

2nd. Weight of air, as varied by its temperature. 

3rd. Diffusion of gases in obedience to a natural law. 





Jk 



FIG. 41. VENTILATION. (PAIGE.) 
Outlet with too many angles. Cow receiving inlet air from over a 

manure pile. 



Wind. — The force of the wind is probably the most im- 
portant one of these factors, and must always be taken into con- 
sideration in planning ventilation or in mathematical estimates 
of the amount of air needed. It is of course irregular, but vari- 
ations can be made in the ventilating facilities to compensate 
for this. A fundamental point in using this factor is to see that 
the incoming air does not pass over or through any contaminat- 
ing source, e. g., over a manure pile, and it is very important 
that the general plan of construction should be well considered. 

Temperature and weight. — The second factor, difference in 
weight between the lighter warm, and heavier cold air, is not so 
important in natural as in artificial ventilation, and yet it is a 
factor of considerable importance. The heat which warms the 
air in the lower levels is that which comes from the bodies of 
the confined animals, as it is radiated from the surface, or warmed 
in passing through the lungs. 



VENTILATION. 



Ill 



Diffusion of gases. — Carbonic gas is considerably heavier 
than air and the lower levels usually contain a slightly higher 
percentage than the higher ones in a stable, but the difference 
is not so great as one would suppose, on account of the diffu- 
sion which takes place in response to the law of diffusion of 
gases — which operates independently of relative weights. This 
force is so strong in its action that considerable diffusion takes 
place through unpainted lumber and through ordinary brick, but 
to a very slight extent if at all through painted surfaces or pa- 
per. 

AIR CURRENTS. 

An entering current of air has the effect of inducing other 
currents within the stable the induced current setting in at right 
angles to the inlet current. 





FIG. 42. VENTILATION. 

Air currents. 



(PAIGE.) 

Manger front inlet. 



With windows wide open to windward, openings on the 
other side of the stable being closed, and with ridge ventilation — 
it is found that the current of air rushes in, strikes the floor 
at a variable distance after spreading out somewhat, then rises 
and most of it passes out at the ridge. A current decreases 
very rapidly in velocity after the first five or six feet from the 
inlet. The atmosphere immediately under the inlet is but mod- 
erately disturbed. 

When opposite windows are fully open the air comes in 
from the windward side, strikes the ground, rises again and a 
considerable portion passes directly out at the opposite side. 



112 CAUSES AND PREVENTION OF DISEASE. 

But a sudden change in the outside currents may temporarily 
reverse this series. 

With the windward window half open, the window on the 
lee side being open, the current passes directly through the stable 
without mixing well with the air inside. 

If the window on the windward side is half open and the 
lee window closed., then a strong entering current goes high to- 
ward the ceiling, spreads out and diffuses in a very satisfac- 
tory way through the stable air and finally escapes through the 
ridge. If the windows are all closed, and a door open, then 
the ridge gives a fairly regular outlet ventilation. The exact 
movement of the air within the stable would be varied, of course, 
by stall partitions and other obstructions. 

A strong wind passing over a stable provided with ventilat- 
ing shaft may have an outward suction effect especially if some 
provision is made to insure this result. This may be accom- 
plished by putting a flange around the upper opening so as to 
direct the outside current of air upward as it strikes the end 
of the outlet shaft. 

Outlets. — In cases where suitable outlets are provided above, 
and the conditions are favorable, warmed air passes upward and 
out of the room or building, but if such outlets are not provided 
then of course the heated air merely rises to the ceiling, cools, 
spreads out and descends, and no pure air can come in to take 
its place. If the outlets are too high the effects are practically 
the same as though there were no outlets at all, for the air be- 
comes cool before it escapes, and falls again. 



LECTURE XXVIII. 
VENTILATION CONTINUED. 

Amount of ventilation needed. — The horse passes 45 cubic 
feet of air through the lungs per hour. This, then, would be 
the amount which the average horse would use if he were out 
in the open where the supply is inexhaustible. It is impossi- 
ble to have the air of any occupied stable as pure as the out- 
side atmosphere. The purpose of ventilation is to come as near 
to this point as may be feasible. 

It has been estimated that the air should not be changed 
more than six times per hour in cool weather, on account of 
drafts which more frequent change would produce, and the loss 
of animal heat. 

Air passing at the rate of three miles per hour, which is 
barely perceptible, through an opening one foot square, admits 
15,840 cubic feet per hour. 

STABLE CONSTKTJCTION. 

Space needed. — A large cubic space per animal is important, 
but this does not lessen the necessity for ventilation. The at- 
mosphere in a large stable with a given number of animals may 
become just as foul as a smaller stable with the same number 
of animals, the only difference being in the length of time re- 
quired to reach this condition. The chief value in a large amount 
of space is that it gives the possibility of admitting a sufficient 
amount of air without such severe drafts, as would necessarily 
be the result of admitting the same amount of air per hour into 
a smaller stable. 

Location. — In order that a stable may be well lighted and 
well ventilated it is necessary to have considerable care in se- 
lecting the location and planning the proportions of the build- 
ing. One of the most desirable forms is that of a main part 
standing east and west and used in a general way for storing 



114 



CAUSES AND PREVENTION OP DISEASE. 



purposes with one or two "ells" at right angles to this on the 
south. This arrangement makes possible a very satisfactory and 
well protected yard on the south side, and gives an even lighting 
to the various portions of the "ells" in which the animals are 
kept. It will be readily seen that when a stable extends east and 
west, and is wide enough for two rows of stalls, the animals on 
the north side do not get much light, for the general lighting of 
their portion of the stable is poor. 

Width. — A stable to be capable of the best ventilation should 
not be over 25 to 30 feet in width. And the lower the better within 
limits, when one is depending on natural conditions. 




FIG. 43. VENTILATION. (PAIGE.) 
Air duct obstructed by cobwebs Stationary outlet cowl to utilize the 



and dust. 



force of the wind for producing up- 
ward suction, and to prevent down 
draft. 



Windows. — In order to secure suitable ventilation in a build- 
ing of this kind two sets of windows should be provided, at least 
one set on each side. And better two sets on each side. Doors 
and windows should be opposite, i. e., door opposite door and 
window opposite window wherever practicable. 

It can be stated in a general way that where one is depend- 
ing upon natural ventilation, and the air is brought in cold, that 
the inlet should be low and the outlet high ; but this does not 
imply that the stable need be very high. 

Shafts and tubes.- — In considering ventilation by shafts an 1 
tubes, it should be remembered that circular, straight tubes are 
preferable, and as for outlets, the shorter the better. It is esti- 
mated that a right angle bend in an outlet diminishes the velocity 
of the outgoing air about one-half. Where it is absolutely nee- 



VENTILATION. 



115 



essary that an outlet tube should change its course, it should be 
done in a curve rather than by a right angle bend. All parts of 
such shafts and tubes should be accessible for cleaning purposes, 
as it is no uncommon thing for them to become obstructed by cob- 
webs and dust so as to be practically useless. In a general way 
the outlet tube if near an outside wall, should be placed on the 
south side of the building, so as to economize the heat of the 
sun in rendering it more effective. Central outlet tubes are gen- 
erally more efficient. 




FIG. 44. VENTILATION. (PAIGE.) 
Sheringham window in section. Sheringharri window, opening 

ward. Seen from outside. 



Several small inlets are always better than one or two large 
ones, as they admit the same volume of air, and give it better dis- 
tribution, without direct currents. 

Sheringham valve. — The Sheringham valve is simple and 
efficient for a stable of suitable construction. This system con- 
sists essentially of windows hinged at the bottom and guarded 
at the sides as to make troughs as the windows open inward. 
This gives the air an upward current, passing over the backs of 
the animals and settling down without direct current. There 
should be two sets of windows on each side, the lower windows 
being generally used for inlets on the windward side, and the 
higher windows for the outlets on the leeward side. This af- 
fords a very simple, inexpensive and easily manipulated method 
of ventilation, and may be combined with ventilating shafts: 
Ventilating shafts should have openings near the ceiling, and also 



116 CAUSES AND PREVENTION OF DISEASE. 

close to the floor, so that their use can be regulated according 
to season and temperature. The upper openings of the shaft 
being used in hot weather, and the lower openings in cold weather. 
There should be a number of medium sized or even small 
windows in this system rather than a few large ones. The same 
amount of air can be allowed to enter through the small openings 
without direct draft, and with much better distribution. 



LECTURE XXIX. 
ACTINOMYCOSIS OR LUMPY JAW. 

Definition.— This disease is commonly called either lumpy- 
jaw or big-head. It is characterized by the development of pe- 
culiar enlargements, usually around the head. The disease may 
also affect internal organs. 

The tumors and abscesses which characterize this disease 
probably have a common origin, being due to the presence and 
activity of a vegetable organism known as actinomyces. When 
these abscesses are opened there is usually found in the interior, 
pus containing minute yellow sulphur-like grains ; sometimes very 
abundant. These yellow grains may be bedded in the diseased 
soft tissues of the tumors. Seen under a microscope this fungus 
under certain conditions seems to be composed of radiating club- 
shaped particles. As the fungus multiplies and spreads the tumor 
growths increase. The tumors are usually very firm on account 
of the large amount of connective tissue which they contain. 
The interior of the tumor is usually somewhat honeycombed with 
the fungus colonies in the spaces. Animals affected are chiefly 
cattle, horses and sheep. 

Relation to public health. — Human beings are evidently 
susceptible to inoculation from this disease, but as the affected 
parts of diseased carcasses are not commonly used as articles of 
human food, and animal meats as a rule are cooked before being 
eaten, there is ordinarily comparatively slight danger for human 
beings. The government meat inspection regulations pass car- 
casses which are but slightly and locally diseased, and condemn 
those which are extensively and generally diseased. 

Parts involved. — These are commonly the bones of the upper 
and lower jaws ; the soft tissues between the two branches of the 
lower jaw, and the tongue. These are the external or superficial 
portions of the body most commonly affected. This disease some- 
times affects the lungs and other internal organs and might be 



118 



COMMON DISEASES. 



mistaken for tuberculosis. The lung symptoms, as seen on ex- 
amination postmortem, vary so much that it is rather difficult to 
describe them. Sometimes the lungs resemble those seen in ordi- 
nary broncho-pneumonia. In other cases considerable areas of 
the lung tissue is changed to a gray mass, soft to the touch. In 
still other cases there are developed distinct abscesses. 




FIG. 45. ACTINOMYCOSIS— LUMPY JAW. (M. H. R.) 

Note the enlarged jaw and the raw, granulating tissue exposed. 



This disease is usually of slow development. A small swell- 
ing appears somewhere about the head, perhaps under the tongue ; 
or the bones of the face near the teeth begin to bulge slightly out- 
ward and the enlargements continue very slowly. The animal 
may remain thrifty for a long time or indeed until the disease in- 
volves the teeth, tongue or other organs and interferes directly 
with nutrition. 

Prevention. — There is so little known concerning the life 
history of the parasite and the methods of infection that a study 
of prevention can be only partially satisfactory. It is generally 
agreed that animals develop lumpy- jaw only after inoculation, i. e., 
the germs find entrance through some cut or scratch in the skin ; 



ACTINOMYCOSIS. 



119 



through the mucous membrane of the mouth on account of dis- 
eased teeth ; or through some abrasion of the mucous membrane 
of the mouth, gullet or stomach. It is also generally agreed that 
the parasite is usually taken in with the food. It is possible that 
this parasite may live through one stage of its development, or 
even multiply upon the surface or in the tissues of some of the 
common fodder plants, particularly barley and rye. 

An animal with a discharging abscess about the head would 
of course infect food in mangers, feeding troughs and grass in 
the pasture, thus offering abundant opportunities for infection. 
Pastures wherein cases of lumpy- jaw seem to develop rather 
commonly should be placed under cultivation or avoided. Ani- 
mals with discharging abscesses should be killed or confined. 



■safel 






FIG. 46. ACTINOMYCOSIS. (.1/. H. B.) 
Inferior maxilla of cow shown in Fig. 45. 

Treatment. — There are three possible lines of treatment : 
surgical, caustic, and internal medication. 

Surgical treatment. — This should be undertaken, only by 
a trained veterinarian on account of the large blood vessels and 
other important structures involved. 

Caustic. — Dr. Detmers, formerly of the Ohio Experiment 
Station, described several years ago a method of local treatment, 
in which he proposed to remove the tumor by the deeply caustic 
action of powdered arsenic. He reported a large number of cases 
treated with satisfactory results. His method was essentially as 
follows : 



120 



COMMON DISEASES. 



The method is simple. One-half ounce of powdered arsen- 
ious acid is added to two drams of caustic potash, one-half ounce 
of powdered gum arabic and one ounce of distilled water. This 
makes a thick syrupy mass. The mixture is kept in a wide- 
mouthed bottle and labeled "Poison." Take a small stick of hard 
wood and sharpen it to a point somewhat resembling the dulled 
blade of a dagger, the tapering end being made as smooth as 
possible. An incision is made into the abscess pocket, or into 
the interior of the tumor, as the case may be. Then by means of 
this piece of wood shove in small masses of absorbent cotton, 
carrying as much as possible of the arsenic paste. These wads 
of cotton are placed quite deep in the substance of the tumor. 




FIG. 47. ACTINOMYCOSIS. (.¥. H. R.) 
A badly diseased upper jaw. 



If the stick is smooth enough it will usually draw out and leave 
the cotton, if not, the cotton can be shoved off the end by the 
use of another small stick. From two to six of these pieces of 
cotton are inserted into the cavity. Within a few days the tumor 
swells considerably. Later on a large surface seems to become 
insensitive, the tissues having been destroyed by the arsenic. 
Finally this dead mass separates and sloughs out. 

The time required for the complete removal in this way va- 
ries from six to ten weeks, but this operation has the advantage 
of requiring but one treatment. This method is of course ap- 
plicable in cases where only soft tissues are diseased. The writer 
has tried this method with satisfactory results, the only objection 



ACTINOMYCOSIS. 121 

and that seemed to be quite a serious one, was that so much time 
was required for complete removal. It should not be forgotten 
that, while the slough is separating, the wound may become in- 
fected with maggots. 

Internal medication. — This treatment is by the internal use 
of iodide of potash, which is given by the mouth either as a drench 
or dissolved in the drinking water. Very many cases may be 
treated with a good prospect of success in this way. 

The dose limit is about one-fourth dram per one hundred 
pounds live weight. Each dose is dissolved in from one-half to 
a pint of water and given as a drench or dissolved in the drink- 
ing water. This dose is given once daily until the animal seems 
to get off feed and discharges freely from the eyes and nose, in- 
dicating something of a catarrhal disturbance of these mucous 
membranes. These conditions indicate that the treatment should 
be discontinued for three or four days. During this period a 
mild cathartic of epsom salts should be given, about one pound 
to iooo pounds live weight. This should be dissolved in water 
and given as a drench. The iodide treatment may then be con- 
tinued for another period of six to ten days when it may be nec- 
essary to discontinue again and give another dose of epsom salts. 
Treatment should be continued until the tumor is reduced to 
about one-third of its original size ; it may then be discontinued. 

The time required for successful treatment in suitable cases 
varies from four to seven weeks. It is not advisible to under- 
take the treatment of any case where there is very great bony 
enlargement, or where there is reason to suppose that there is a 
very serious disease of the bony structure. 

Vet. Studies— 8. 



LECTURE XXX. 

ANTHRAX.* 

History. — One of the oldest diseases known to medical sci- 
ence. 

Distribution. — Almost world wide. In the United States, 
anthrax is sporadic in the North, East, and West; but in the 
South, more particularly in parts of the Lower Mississippi Valley 
and along the coast of the Mexican Gulf, it seems to be enzootic. 

Animals affected. — All of the domestic farm animals are, 
more or less, susceptible to anthrax. The disease is transmissible, 
also, to human beings, chiefly by inoculation, but may be con- 
veyed by means of food or water, or through the inhalation of 
dried spores, which afterwards develop into the rod-shaped or- 
ganisms in the blood. 

Cause. — A microscopic rod-shaped organism or germ, the 
Bacterium anthracis. The rod stage of the organism is found 
in living blood, immediately after death, while the spore stage 
occurs outside of the body. Some authorities claim that this 
germ may, under certain conditions, lead a saprophytic existence, 
that is, live upon decaying vegetable matter outside of the body. 
The rod is more easily destroyed than is the spore. Where con- 
ditions are favorable, such as the necessary amount of heat and 
moisture, the spore may retain its vitality in surface soil, manure, 
in infected feed-stuffs, blood, hides, hair and wool of anthrax 
victims for long periods, and be capable of causing fresh out- 
breaks. 

Modes of Transmission. 

(i) By the respiratory tract. — Dried spores may be in- 
haled and reach the general circulation by way of the capillaries 
of the lungs. Human beings following certain occupations, as 
wool-sorting, mattress-making, etc., obtain infection in this way 
more often than do the lower animals. 

*This lecture contributed by Dr. W. H. Dalrym'ple of Louisiana. 



ANTHRAX. 123 

(2) By the skin. — When infection is introduced through 
the skin, there results the condition known as external anthrax, 
carbuncular disease, inoculation anthrax, or malignant pustule. 
This may be occasioned by insects, especially the blood-sucking 
varieties as the different horse or gad-flies (Tabanidae), prob- 
ably, also, by some varieties of the mosquito ; by wounds made 
by infected instruments or utensils; or other wounds coming in 
contact with virulent material. In the Lower Mississippi Valley 
the external form occurs very frequently, and some outbreaks 
extend over considerable territory, among horses and mules on 
account of the vast numbers of horse flies during the summer 
months. 



FIG. 48. BACTERIUM (BACILLUS) ANTHRACIS. {M. H. B.) 

The specific cause of anthrax. 

(3) By the digestive tract. — The internal, or intestinal form 
of anthrax is generally produced through taking the virus in 
contaminated food or water. 

Herbivorous animals contract the disease through grazing 
over infected pastures, or through cured products raised upon 
infected fields. 

Hogs suffer through eating the flesh of animals that have 
died of the disease. 

Poultry have been observed to die, during epizootics in some 
of the Gulf States, after eating portions of anthrax flesh and 
offal ; and have, also, been observed to succumb suddenly, and 
several at a time, after picking off, and eating, horse-flies from 
the bodies of mules affected with anthrax. The blood in these 
cases was, however, not examined microscopically. 

Methods of introduction and spread. — Imported hides, hair, 
wool, etc., from foreign countries infected with anthrax. Fer- 
tilizing materials manufactured from animals affected with the 
disease may be a source of infection. Running water may be- 
come contaminated, and spread infection along its course. The 
refuse water from tanneries has been known to disseminate in- 
fection from anthrax hides. The wind may sometimes be re- 



124 COMMON DISEASES. 

sponsible for the conveyance of dried anthrax spores. Insects, 
after feeding upon infected blood and tissues, may transmit the 
virus to healthy animals through fresh wounds or sores, or by 
puncturing the skin. Insects may probably, also, infect food 
materials in troughs and mangers, by conveying virulent matter 
on their bodies and feet. Carrion birds, through the medium 
of their excrement, or soiled feet, may infect pastures on which 
they alight. 

Carnivorous and omnivorous animals, as dogs and hogs, 
running at large, after feeding upon anthrax carcasses, may carry 
away virulent blood on their feet ; and, if these animals die them- 
selves, they become fresh centers of the disease. 

Food-stuffs, as pastures, and commercial feeding materials 
such as the cereal grains and their by-products, hay, etc., raised 
upon lands infected with anthrax spores, may carry those spores 
and spread the disease. 

Human beings coming in contact with virulent anthrax ma- 
terial, and having their clothes, shoes, hands, etc., soiled thereby, 
may easily spread the disease. 

Neglect to properly dispose of anthrax carcasses is, perhaps, 
the factor most responsible for the continuance and spread of 
anthrax. 

Period of incubation. — The time that elapses between in- 
fection and symptoms, depends upon the method of infection, and 
amount of infective material introduced, and may range from a 
very few hours to several days. 

Symptoms. 

Pulmonary anthrax. — This form is probably not of frequent 
occurrence in the lower animals. Dried spores may, however, 
be inhaled from infected hay, whole or crushed grains, etc. 
There are: suddenness of attack; elevation of temperature, 104 
to 108 F. ; inappetence; difficult respiration; injection of visible 
mucous membranes ; discharge of blood from respiratory tract ; 
unsteady action of the heart; small and frequent pulse; stagger- 
ing movements ; convlusions, and death resulting from asphyxia. 
This form is confined chiefly to the herbivora. 

External or cutaneous anthrax. — There is swelling at point 
or points of inoculation (carbuncle or malignant pustule), with 



COMMON DISEASES. 125 

considerable local edema (localized watery swelling). This is 
painful and hot at first, but afterwards becomes cold and without 
manifestation of pain. If inoculations have been made by in- 
sects, the carbuncles may be numerous over different parts of 
the body. The swellings extend in the connective tissue along 
the course of the lymph vessels and nodes. 

This form is seen most frequently in the thinner-skinned 
herbivora — horse, mule, etc. 

Internal anthrax. — Sudden seizure, great depression and pros- 
tration ; rapid elevation of temperature ; stupor ; muscular weak- 
ness and twitchings ; vertigo ; hurried respirations ; increased 
heart-action, the organ beating tumultuously ; visible mucous 
membranes dark-red, or a bluish-red color; sometimes the color- 
ing matter of the blood passes in the urine. This form usually 
terminates fatally. 

The horse , ass, and mule may exhibit symptoms of internal 
anthrax without visible external swellings when the virus has 
been taken into the body with food or water. 

In cattle, the internal or acute anthrax is most frequently 
seen, and without external localized swellings. Tumors are, how- 
ever, sometimes observed, either as the result of inoculation, or 
during the course of the acute attack. 

In the sheep and goat, there is suddenness of attack; stag- 
gering gait ; convulsive attacks ; discharge of blood from natural 
openings ; and coloring matter of the blood passed in the urine. 
External anthrax may be produced -by contaminated insects in- 
fecting wounds on the bodies of shorn sheep, or on their heads, 
caused by butting. Occasionally there may be found edematous 
(watery) enlargements on the mammary gland, scrotum, on the 
throat, and other parts thinly covered with wool. 

In the hog, the external manifestations are usually confined 
to the throat; and there are generally other symptoms of a spe- 
cific fever present. As a rule, death takes place from asphyxia. 
The hog becomes infected from eating the tissues of anthrax 
carcasses ; and the disease is most frequent in this animal dur- 
ing epizootics. 

Poultry. — There is difference of opinion with regard to the 
susceptibility of poultry, on account of their normally high tem- 
perature, which, it is claimed, is unfavorable to the development 



126 COMMON DISEASES. 

of the anthrax organism. Although microscopic examinations 
of blood were not made, the writer has known of poultry dying 
suddenly during severe epizootics in the Lower Mississippi Val- 
ley, where access was had to anthrax flesh and other tissues ; 
and also, as previously mentioned, where poultry were seen to 
pick horse-flies from off the bodies of mules suffering from the 
disease. 

Course of the disease. — In isolated cases, limited outbreaks, 
and in the early part of an epizootic, the course of the disease is 
usually very acute and rapid ; while, toward the termination of 
an epizootic, anthrax seems much less fatal, many of the affected 
animals recovering. Or, in other words, the virulence of the 
disease seems to become weakened toward the end of an outbreak. 

Examination postmortem. — On account of the danger to the 
operator, and of spreading the disease, through the infectivity 
of the blood, postmortem examination of an anthrax carcass is 
dangerous, and is not recommended, except when undertaken by 
an expert familiar with the possible untoward consequences. 

Diagnosis. — This is safest and most reliable by microscopic 
examination of a small quantity of blood from the extremities 
(ear of larger animals, or a foot of the smaller), or by inoculation 
of the small susceptible animals (guinea pig), with anthrax blood, 
and subsequent microscopic examination of the blood of inocu- 
lated cadaver. 

Treatment. 

Therapeutic. — Internally, coal tar products have been rec- 
ommended. Externally, good results have been secured from in- 
jecting the carbuncles (swellings) with a 5% watery solution of 
pure carbolic acid, or the requisite strength of some other effect- 
ive germicide. 

Preventive. — Inoculation by the Pasteur method, practiced 
annually in anthrax districts, or in sporadic outbreaks, as re- 
quired. Or, by an alteration of serum and virus. Prevention 
in this way is very important. 

Sanitary. — Cremation of intact carcasses ; thorough disin- 
fection of premises (stables, sheds, yards, etc.) ; drainage and cul- 
tivation of infected lands ; destruction of horse-flies, mosquitoes, 
etc. ; draining pools and stagnant water where these insects breed 
or frequent; and by effective live stock sanitary legislation. 



LECTURE XXXI. 
SYMPTOMATIC ANTHRAX. 

This disease is also known as black leg, black quarter, etc. 

Definition. — A fatal infectious and enzootic disease of thrifty 
young cattle. It is apt to appear year after year on certain pas- 
tures or along certain valleys. Cattle over two years of age are 
not usually affected. 

Cause. — A short spore- forming bacillus (Bacillus Chauvoei). 
This germ is very resistant, being able to remain virulent for 
years — under favorable conditions. Infection is usually made by 
inoculation, either through the skin or mucous membranes, more 
commonly through the former. 

Symptoms. — Local and general. ■ 

Local symptoms. — There is usually a pronounced swelling in- 
volving either the front or hind quarter. This swelling is char- 
acterized by crepitation as one passes the hand over it, due to an 
accumulation of gas in the loose subcutaneous tissues. The 
swelling does not extend below the hock or knee. An incision 
into the swelling reveals the presence of dark, frothy blood, with 
foul odor. This swelling is not invariable. Some cases, espe- 
cially those which appear at the beginning of the outbreak and 
die very suddenly, may not show the characteristic swelling. 

Constitutional symptoms. — The constitutional symptoms are 
usually acute and develop rapidly. The animal is dull, without 
appetite. It shows high fever and marked debility. The consti- 
tutional symptoms may last from one to three days, and the case 
usually terminates fatally. The fever may reach 106 or even 
107. There is lameness in those cases which show local swellings 
of the front or hind quarters. 

Examination postmortem. — This reveals a tumor filled with 
dark, frothy blood with fetid odor, and more or less filled with 
gas. The spleen is normal and blood from the general circulation 
is also apparently normal, clotting readily on exposure to air. 



128 COMMON DISEASES. 

Jn these features of normal spleen, normally clotting blood and 
gas filled tumor, this disease differs from true anthrax. 

Prevention. — As soon as the disease appears cattle under 
two years of age should be promptly changed to another and pre- 
ferably higher pasture. If the young cattle have been on dry 
food then this should be changed. 

Vaccination is now conceded to be very satisfactory and thor- 
oughly practical. There are a number of commercial black leg 
vaccines on the market, that are quite reliable. The Federal 
Bureau of Animal Industry is supplying what is known as the 
government black leg vaccine. This vaccine is quite satisfactory. 
Method of vaccination depends upon the kind of vaccine used. 
Directions usually accompany each shipment from any of the re- 
liable makers. The government vaccine is a brownish powder, 
put in small packets of 10 and 25 doses. 

This powder is moistened with a little boiled water, then 
more boiled water is added ; the whole is filtered and the liquid 
passing through the filter constitutes the vaccine which is injected 
by a hypodermic syringe. ■ Injection is usually made on the side 
of the neck or back of the shoulder, through a skin area which 
has previously been disinfected. 

Treatment. — Medical treatment for this disease is not con- 
sidered satisfactory, or as a rule worth while. Prevention by 
vaccination is easily applied, inexpensive and usually satisfactory. 



LECTURE XXXII. 
FOOT AND MOUTH DISEASE. 

Definition. — A very contagious disease, chiefly of ruminant 
animals and swine. Some outbreaks are much more virulent than 
others, but an outbreak of this disease is always a serious matter 
for the owner, even though no animals die, and a very serious 
matter for the public in general. One attack does not give im- 
munity; on the contrary, this disease is apt to recur at compara- 
tively short intervals. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms are here given for cattle. Sheep 
and swine show in general similar symptoms. 

This disease develops in from three to five days after expos- 
ure. Affected cattle are first noticed to be sluggish. They shiv- 
er, and later on they are stiff and lame. There is profuse flow 
of the saliva with frequent swallowing motions and smacking of 
the lips. The peculiar lesions of the foot and mouth disease are 
vesicles or small blisters affecting the mouth ; the skin above and 
between the hoofs, and over the udder, and teats. These vesicles 
soon break and bleed, leaving raw surfaces which as a rule heal 
but sometimes remain as rather chronic ulcers. The skin and 
superficial tissues around the hoofs become intensely inflamed, and 
swollen. The stomach is also involved ; affected animals lose 
weight; and the milk flow is checked. It should be remembered 
that the symptoms vary geatly in virulence in different animals 
and different outbreaks. One patient does not usually show all 
these symptoms. Affected animals are very much inclined to lie 
down by reason of the sore feet. This disease is not ordinarily 
fatal, but causes very serious loss in the checked milk flow, and 
prolonged unthrifty condition, and seriously diseased feet. There 
is a marked fever highest just before the eruption appears. Ac- 
tive symptoms of the disease last from eight to fourteen days, 
and animals usually recover within about three weeks. The dis- 
ease of the skin around the hoofs often follows the mouth symp- 



130 COMMON DISEASES. 

toms, but the two may occur together. When the disease affects 
sheep and swine it is apt to involve especially the feet. 

Dissemination. — The infecting virus is present in yards, 
stables, carts, and on the food or feeding utensils. Even a road 
over which diseased animals may have passed may be infectious. 
This disease may be disseminated in an indefinite number of ways, 
and is recognized as one of the most easily scattered of the in- 
fectious diseases. The infectious material is apparently present 
in the discharge from the vesicles, in the saliva, milk, urine, ma- 
nure, expired air, and perspiration. The infection is probably 
obtained through the respiratory or digestive organs. 

Prevention. — The prevention of this disease is simply the 
prevention of infection. This country was supposed to be free 
from this disease until 1902 when it appeared in several of the 
New England states ; and until stockmen are thoroughly sure that 
the disease has been stamped out, very great care should be ex- 
ercised in the purchase and shipment of suspected animals. In- 
fected premises that have not been disinfected may remain in- 
fectious for an undetermined period. Until we have more posi- 
tive information on this point we may say that it would hardly be 
safe to risk exposure in less than a year unless the premises can 
be thoroughly disinfected. 

Treatment. — Simple cleanliness. Most cases will recover 
without treatment in two or three weeks, but in some serious 
cases it is necessary to use astringents and antiseptics, for in- 
stance, alum water or creolin. This is especially for raw and in- 
flamed surfaces. 



LECTURE XXXIII. 
GLANDERS. 

Definition. — The words "glanders" and "farcy" both refer to 
the same disease, the latter being commonly used for those forms 
where the skin and external parts are especially affected. This 
disease is serious because it may be transmitted to human beings, 
and with almost invariably fatal results. It is easily spread 
among susceptible animals. Obscure cases may be highly in- 
fectious. 

Susceptible animals. — This disease is practically confined to 
horses, donkeys and mules. Human beings, sheep and goats are 
susceptible. Cattle are immune. 

Causes. — A minute rod-shaped germ (Bacillus mallei) which 
must be recognized as the direct and specific cause of the disease. 
Unsanitary conditions and everything which lessens the animal 
vigor may act as predisposing causes. The disease is more se- 
vere and more rapidly fatal among animals which are crowded or 
overworked. 

Incubation. — This period varies greatly. Different authors 
have given it variously from three to seven days in experimental 
work. In some cases the period of incubation is probably consid- 
erably longer, especially in natural cases. 

SYMPTOMS. 

For our purpose, cases of glanders will be divided into but 
two classes, viz : glanders and farcy. It is generally customary to 
distinguish acute and chronic glanders, also acute and chronic 
farcy, making four types, but acute and chronic cases of each form 
differ mainly in severity of symptoms and rapidity of development. 

Glanders. — This form of the disease is characterized in gen- 
eral by the development of ulcers on the mucous membrane of the 
respiratory apparatus ; by a peculiar discharge from the nose ; and 



132 



COMMON DISEASES. 



sometimes by chronic cough. Certain glands between the branches 
of the lower jaw are affected in a peculiar way. 

Acute cases. — When the cases are acute, small tubercles de- 
velop rapidly on this mucous membrane and soon change to small 
ulcers which increase in size and even coalesce. Thus is developed 
the peculiar ulcer of glanders with its dirty gray base and over- 
hanging edges. The dis- 
charge from these ulcers is 
quite distinctly viscid. Very 
large ulcers and even rag- 
ged gutterlike excavations 
may develop, particularly 
on the nasal septum. The 
ulcers may heal, leaving 
light colored more or less 
star shaped scars. 

The fever may be se- 
vere in acute glanders, the 
temperature rising rapidly 
to 105 or even 107, and 
then be quite variable for 
a few days. There may be 
also persistent chills. 

There is apt to be a de- 
velopment of V-shaped 
areas of lung inflammation 
in the more acute cases. 
Occasionally there is a par- 
tial or apparent recovery from the acute symptoms and then 
the development of a chronic case. 

The lymphatics become involved. Certain enlarged glands 
may be found. 

These glands are located well up on the inside of the jaws 
and more or less adherent. Glanderous disease of these glands 
may usually be distinguished from other involvements, as for in- 
stance, in strangles (distemper) and laryngitis. In glanders they 
have a peculiar nodular feeling, which is not characteristic of 
other troubles. 

Chronic cases. — If the disease be chronic then these same 
symptoms in general develop less rapidly. The chronic pulmonary 




FIG. 49. GLANDERS— FARCY. (M. H. R.) 

A recent case. Note the enlarged leg 
without farcy buds. 



GLANDERS. 



133 



form of glanders may be suspected when there is a mild, dry 
cough, especially if such cough be accompanied by debility and 
occurring in a stable where an obvious case of glanders has been 
demonstrated. When the lungs are much affected in chronic cases 
of pulmonary glanders the horse is apt to show symptoms of 
heaves, and on examination post mortem there are found numer- 
ous tubercles, usually showing, or easily felt, on the surface of 
the lungs. 

A horse may be affect- 
ed with a mild, chronic 
form of the disease, and 
remain in good flesh, be 
vigorous and apparently in 
the best of health for years, 
showing no marked nasal 
discharge or farcy sores, 
and yet be very actively in- 
fectious to other horses. 

Chronic cases may also 
show a chronic nasal dis- 
charge, nasal ulcers and 
nodular, adherent maxillary 
glands. 

Farcy. — In the farcy 
form of glanders the super- 
ficial connective tissues and 
lymphatics are especially 
involved. 

In the acute form, just 
as with acute glanders, 
there may be very high 

temperature with local swellings. This swelling often occurs in 
one hind leg, with soreness and lameness. As the swelling abates 
the characteristic nodules, or so-called farcy buds, appear. 

The head may swell badly and later farcy sores appear at 
irregular intervals and places. These may heal and leave scars — ■ 
as shown in Figure 51. When farcy buds break there is dis- 
charged a viscid pus that is very characteristic of this disease, 
being clear and quite cohesive. 




FIG. 50. GLANDERS— FARCY. (M. H. R.) 
An old case. Note enlarged leg with 
old farcy buds, healed. 



134 



COMMON DISEASES. 



The specific symptoms of farcy may be summed up as the bud, 
the ulcer, the lymphatic cord and the characteristic viscid sticky 
discharge. 

In the chronic forms we have similar histories and symp- 
toms, but the latter may be less obvious and less rapidly developed. 

Diagnosis . — A positive diagnosis on the clinical symptoms 
may be made in many cases, but there are a great many cases 
which cannot be so diagnosed with certainty. In these cases we 
must rely upon the mallein test. 

Mallein test. — -This test may be con- 
ducted as follows : Temperatures are 
taken at 10 a. m., 2 p. m., 4 p. m. and 
6 p. m. The mallein is then given by 
hypodermic injection at about 10 p. m. 
On the following day temperatures are 
taken every two hours, beginning at 6 
a. m. and continuing until 6 or even 8 
p. m. A rise of two degrees or more 
.above the normal range is diagnostic and 
is determined by comparing the temper- 
atures taken on the second day with those 
taken on the first day of test. Such a rise 
of temperature is spoken of as a reaction. 
Reacting animals usually show a promi- 
nent and painful swelling at the point of 
injection. Mallein has. developed the rather serious fact that there 
are unquestionably a great many cases of glanders which are never 
recognized, some of which are without doubt infectious. 

Prevention. — The common methods of spread must be borne 
in mind, and the fact be clearly realized that the germ which 
causes glanders is very easily disseminated. Some of the more 
common methods of spreading it are by drinking water, feed 
boxes and troughs, hitching racks and posts, and in the large 
cities, by the public water fountains. Any means which serves 
to bring the virus into direct contact with mucous membranes or 
with the broken skin may be sufficient to cause an attack. Pus 
from the farcy sores, and the nasal discharge are very virulent. 




FIG. 51. GLANDERS- 
FARCY. (M. H. B.) 
Farcy scars in the face. 
An old case. 



GLANDERS. 135 

Prevention consists in avoiding conditions which may bring 
the virus into contact with the mucous membranes or broken 
skin. It is never safe to purchase or trade, from a stranger, a 
horse that has any nasal discharge or suspicious sores. Stories 
of having caught cold or having a little distemper may usually 
be suspected, under such circumstances. 

Treatment. — It is probable that some cases of glanders re- 
cover under favorable conditions without treatment especially in 
the Northwest, but this is a very dangerous disease ; we have no 
means of knowing which cases have a reasonable probability of 
recovery; and medical treatment by the use of drugs has never 
seemed to give any satisfactory results. For these reasons it is 
usually conceded by veterinarians that treatment of glanders is 
not justified. All cases should be reported to the proper health 
officers. 



LECTURE XXXIV. 
HAEMOKRHAGIC SEPTICAEMIA. 

This disease is interesting because of its many forms ; it is 
interesting because medical treatment so far as we know is ab- 
solutely useless and hopeless. We are helpless in the matter of 
prevention because we have practically no information as to the 
method of infection or method of spread. Those who have had 
a chance to study outbreaks have been quite unable to trace any 
connection between one outbreak and another, or to trace a pre- 
vious history for any given outbreak. This disease is worthy of 
very serious consideration because it is so wide spread and so 
fatal. It appears suddenly and under all sorts of conditions ; a. 
number of animals, usually a large proportion, die, and the dis- 
ease disappears as suddenly as it came. 

Etiology. — The specific cause of this disease is apparently a 
germ Bacillus bovisepticus which has not been distinguished from 
the bacillus of swine plague by any cultural or morphological 
characteristics. How this microorganism spreads or how it gains 
entrance into the animal body is not known, but at present it is 
supposed that the entrance may be effected by inoculation ; through 
the respiratory ; or the alimentary mucous membrane. 

History and development. — The onset is usually sudden and 
unexpected, and yet in some outbreaks the onset is quite slow and 
the cases are distinctly chronic. 

Season and climatic conditions apparently have nothing to 
do with the prevalence, virulence or disappearance of this disease. 
The mortality for the past few years during which it has been 
studied has been high. 

Symptoms. — In the writer's experience the temperatures have 
been uniformly normal or subnormal, except in certain cases where 
the temperature rose rapidly just before death. 

The prominent symptoms in some outbreaks are those which 
belong to a meningitis, but it would be misleading to suggest that 



HAEMORRHAGIC SEPTICAEMIA. 137 

these nervous disturbances are characteristic of haemorrhagic 
septicaemia. 

Local changes which correspond to the tumors of anthrax 
and symtomatic anthrax are very limited or wanting. 

The urine in many cases has been scanty or blood stained, 
and this is also true of the bowel discharges. 

Examination post mortem. —This is very much more definite 
and satisfactory. The blood is apparently normal. 




FIG. 52. HAEMORRHAGIC SEPTICAEMIA. {M. H. R.) 

Haemorrhages (dark spots) on peritoneal surface of Intestine. 

Subcutaneous haemorrhages are common and vary greatly in 
size and intensity; in some cases they are large and the haemor- 
rhagic condition is marked. In other cases the haemorrhages are 
minute, scattered, and few in number. The haemorrhages may 
appear almost anywhere in the subcutaneous tissues, or involve 
any of the internal organs. The spleen is not enlarged, but there 
may be haemorrhages on the surface. The haemorrhages usually 
have sharply denned borders and are easily recognized as haemor- 
rhages. 

The serous membranes frequently show small haemorrhagic 
areas, and the heart, especially the auricles are often intensely 
haemorrhagic. 

Vet. Studies— 9. 



138 



COMMON DISEASES. 



Summary. — We may summarize the symptoms as follows : 
In acute cases the disease appears suddenly ; the case develops 
very rapidly and terminates fatally. The antemortem symptoms 
are very unsatisfactory from a diagnostic standpoint. The post 
mortem symptoms are definite and as a rule easily recognized and 
consist of more or less extensive haemorrhages which are sharply 
defined when they appear upon the surfaces of the vicera and 
serous membranes. 

MENINGEAL TYPE. 

History. — Cows which have given a normal flow of milk in 
the morning may give prac- 
tically none in the evening. 
Otherwise they are apparently 
normal. They may be noticed 
to be slightly ailing the next 
morning but showing little 
aside from dullness. There 
may be no rise of temperature ; 
no evidence of pain or discom- 
fort. When they attempt to 
walk, tbe gait is more or less 
irregular, resembling very 
much the gait of milk fever in 
its early stage. This is of 

course more marked in some FIG - 53 - haemorrhagic sep- 
ticaemia. (M. H. B.) 
than in Others. Haemorrhages on endocardium 

(internal lining of the heart). 

Symptoms. — The symptoms* during the first 24 to 36 hours 
are not marked except as to continued dullness, staggering gait 
and cold extremities. The skin is harsh and lacking in sensation. 
This loss of skin sensation begins at the posterior extremities and 
gradually extends forward. The milk flow is checked. 

After 24 to 36 hours, diarrhea appears, the discharges being 
dark and thin with very disagreeable odor. Nervous symptoms 
gradually develop and are quite uniform. 

The symptoms during this second period are those which be- 

*In case of young calves, the cases may be characterized by profound 
nervous disturbance very early in their histories. 




HAEMORRHAGIC SEPTICAEMIA. 



139 



long to a gradually developing cerebro-spinal meningitis. The in- 
ability to walk naturally was continued, the gait being irregular 
and weak. The neck is often bent to one side and the muscles, 
particularly of the face and neck, spasmodically contracted. Dur- 
ing this period the animals are still quiet, moving around very 
little; but the eyes show a wild, unnatural expression. During 
this period the animals may commence to chew in a nervous and 
very persistent manner, with more or less profuse flow of saliva. 
The temperatures may remain normal or subnormal. 




FIG. 



54. HAEMORRHAGIC SEPTICAEMIA. 
Haemorrhages on costal pleura. 



(If. E. B.) 



Later, there appears a third fairly distinct period of intense 
nervous activity. The eyes continue to grow more wild and un- 
natural ; the grinding of the jaws more active and more con- 
stant; the convulsions of face and neck muscles become more in- 
tense; then gradually a period of intense restlessness and activ- 
ity, and death ends the scene. 

Post mortem symptoms. Meningitis involving the spinal 

cord or brain or both is plainly evident. In addition to this there 
are haemorrhages involving the subcutaneous tissues, and lym- 



140 



COMMON DISEASES. 



phatic glands in various portions of the body; also involving the 
pleurae, pericardium, and surface of various internal organs as 
in the usual type of the disease. 

A peculiar fact which appears in connection with these men- 
ingeal type cases is that the animals which are apparently most 
seriously sick early in their histories are often the cases which 
live longest, whereas the apparently milder cases die very quickly 
and very unexpectedly. 




FIG. 55. HAEMORRHAGIC SEPTICAEMIA. (M. H. R.) 

Meningeal type. Cow stupid. Early stage. 



DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS. 

It is very important to distinguish between black leg and 
haemorrhagic septicaemia, because so far as our present knowl- 
edge extends, we are helpless in the presence of haemorrhagic 
septicaemia. We have no vaccine either preventive or curative, 
and no medical treatment ; whereas black leg can be easily and 
cheaply prevented by vaccination. 

In both diseases, death is liable to occur very suddenly, but 
black leg commonly affects only cattle under two years of age, 
whereas haemorrhagic septicaemia affects all ages indiscriminately. 
High temperatures are characteristic of black leg, especially early 



HABMORRHAGIC SEPTICAEMIA. 141 

in the history of the cases, whereas, in haemorrhagic septicaemia 
the temperature is often normal or sub-normal until near death, 
and then in some cases rising very rapidly. A pronounced swell- 
ing of the front or hind quarter is rather characteristic of black 
leg, although in some cases which die very suddenly there may 
be no noticeable swelling. These cases usually occur early in the 
history of the outbreak of black leg, and following them there are 
other cases which show the characteristic swellings of black leg. 
Swellings of this kind are not characteristic of haemorrhagic sep- 
ticaemia, and when present at all are small. 

Blood taken from a black leg tumor is dark, frothy and with 
disagreeable odor, whereas blood taken from a case of haemor- 
rhagic septicaemia, even from the small swellings which some- 
times occur, is apparently normal. It reddens on exposure to air 
and clots readily. It should be noted that this is also true of 
blood taken from general circulation in the cases of black leg. 

A diagnosis between these two diseases may, as a rule, be 
quite easily made by examination postmortem. Here we have 
in a case of haemorrhagic septicaemia the characteristic haemor- 
rhages which appear as blood-stained or bruise-like areas under 
the skin; and sharply defined blood-stained spots on the internal 
organs or the lining membranes of the chest and abdomen. These 
haemorrhages are not at all characteristic of black leg. On skin- 
ning animals affected with black leg, crepitating, gas-fmed tumors 
of black leg are usually found which are characteristic of that dis- 
ease. These are not found in haemorrhagic septicaemia. 



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LECTURE XXXV. 
TEXAS OR TICK FEVER.* 

Economic importance. — The seriousness of tick fever as a 
disease of cattle and the bearing of this disease upon the southern 
cattle industry was not realized until within a few years. Today 
we know that it is responsible for the death of more cattle through- 
out the southern states than any other half dozen diseases. Even 
at this time its true nature is not generally recognized by the 
stockmen. 

Names. — This disease passes under a variety of names, such 
as acclimation fever, red water, bloody murrain, distemper, town- 
cow disease, hollow horn, hollow tail, etc. 

Causes. — It has been established that the disease is caused 
by an animal parasite, a protozoan, which attacks the red cor- 
puscles of the blood. Little or nothing is known of the life his- 
tory of this parasite outside of the blood of the affected animal. 
Its multiplication in the blood is very rapid and its effects are very 
destructive, involving especially the red blood corpuscles. It de- 
stroys these very rapidly. 

Transmission. — So far as known the only natural means of 
transmitting the germ of this disease is the southern cattle tick 
(Boophihis annulatus)^ . Other species of ticks attack southern 
cattle, but this is the most common and is the only one responsible 
for the transmission of the Texas Fever germ. 

The ticks do not carry the germs direct from one infected ani- 
mal to another, but the female ticks develop on infected animals 
and then transmit the germs to their eggs and the young ticks 
hatching therefrom carry the germs to susceptible animals, which 
' they may chance to infest. 

Susceptibility. — Bovines alone seem susceptible to the disease 
although the tick, which carries the infection, occasionally infests 

*This lecture contributed by Dr. Tait Butler of North Carolina. 
+Or B—Botis (Riley). 



144 COMMON DISEASES. 

horses and mules. Calves at birth are as a rule immune ; but 
this immunity is gradually lost until at two years of age nearly 
all are highly susceptible to the disease. Cattle reared in the 
southern states on tick-free pastures are as susceptible as those 
raised in the North. 

Period of incubation. — The disease usually develops in from 
seven to ten days after direct inoculation of a susceptible animal 
with the blood of one infected, or that has acquired immunity from 
a previous attack. When infection occurs in the natural way, 
about the same time usually elapses between exposure to tick 
infestation and the development of the disease. This period is 
not always uniform, for in some cases no evidences of the dis- 
ease can be detected before fifteen to thirty days after inocula- 
tion. However, a large percentage of cases develop within ten 
days after inoculation. 

Symptoms. — It is frequently stated that tick fever occurs in 
acute and chronic forms. The chronic form, however, usually 
follows the acute and appears months after the acute attack. 
These relapses or secondary attacks are not uncommon in the late 
fall and early winter. It is then difficult to distinguish them 
from ordinary debility from other causes except by the history of 
a previous attack or by an examination of the blood. 

Fever. — In the acute type of the disease an elevation of tem- 
perature is usually the first noticeable symptom. A temperature 
of 107 degrees or 108 degrees F. is not unusual but when it 
reaches 105 degrees or 106 degrees other symptoms usually be- 
come apparent. While there are considerable fluctuations in tem- 
perature it generally remains high during five to seven days and 
may then drop suddenly to normal or below. Many animals die 
during the extremely high temperature, or, if the temperature 
falls, it is only as a prelude to deaths. The period of subnormal 
temperature is a dangerous one and collapse should be fortified 
against. Otherwise an animal may succumb that might by proper 
treatment be saved. 

Other symptoms. — The patient usually stands apart with the 
head down and back arched. In severe cases or when death ap- 
proaches, it may lie or fall down. The pulse usually runs from 
80 to 100 and the respirations from fifty to sixty per minute. In 
most cases during the extremely high temperatures, the urine is 
highly colored, sometimes becoming of port wine color or almost 



TEXAS FEVER. 



l-i5 



black. The red color is merely coloring matter from the red 
corpuscles which are rapidly destroyed by the germs. At first 
the bowels are constipated, but later diarrhoea is not uncommon. 
The mucous membranes are usually pale and sometimes slightly 
yellow. As death approaches and the symptoms become aggra- 
vated the animal usually remains down. Occasional periods of 
•excitement or even convulsions may occur. 

History of the case. — The most important factor in determin- 
ing the diagnosis, next to finding the germs in the blood, is the 

history of the animal and the pres- 
ence of ticks. If the animal has not 
previously been exposed to tick in- 
festation and has recently changed 
location, or if tick infestation has in 
any way been rendered possible, a 
searching examination should be 
made to ascertain whether ticks are 
really on its body. 

Ticks where found. — The ticks 
are most likely to be found on the 
tender parts of the skin, such as be- 
tween the hind legs, on the escutch- 
eon, on the inside of the elbows, or 
on the brisket which is most ex- 
posed. Since the disease may de- 

56 ' T Srr/rf VER T ' CK ' velop within ten da - vs after ticks at " 
Femaie engorged. Boophiius bovis tack the animal, and this time is not 

7 ' sufficient for them to become larger 

than twice the size of a pin head it 
will be readily appreciated that to find the ticks is not always an 
easy matter, especially if they are not numerous. Other diseases 
producing blood colored urine are extremely rare among cattle in 
this country. 

Conclusion. — The presence of the symptoms described may 
therefore be considered as diagnostic, and good evidence as to 
the presence of ticks even though these may not be found. 

Post mortem appearances. -Only in animals that die during 
an acute attack are the changes well marked and of those only 
the more pronounced will be given. Other changes may be seen 
but they are often only slight, or absent. 




FIG. 



146 COMMON DISEASES. 

The subcutaneous tissue may be slightly yellow and infiltrated 
with yellow colored serum. 

The muscular tissue is frequently pale and flabby, especially 
in chronic cases. 

The spleen, in cases that succumb during the height of or 
just after the subsidence of the fever, is much enlarged and dark 
colored. When held up by one end the contents of the capsule 
will tend to gravitate to the lower end. When cut into it is black, 
soft and engorged with blood. 

The liver is enlarged, congested and usually mottled in color, 
due to bile-injection. The bile is increased in quantity, dark col- 
ored, thick and ropy, sometimes almost semi-solid. 

The kidneys are usually engorged and dark, and the bladder 
contains urine varying in color from slightly red to almost black. 

Prognosis. — The death rate in calves under six months old 
is extremely low. In cattle a year old it may range from ten to 
twenty-five per cent. In those two years old it will probably be 
from twenty-five to fifty per cent, and in those over two years- 
old from fifty to eighty per cent. 

Treatment. — This usually proves unsatisfactory. The results 
scarcely justify the expense and trouble which it entails, except 
in very valuable animals. During the first stages, when consti- 
pation is present, a purgative consisting of from one to one and 
one-half pounds of Epsom salts and one dram of calomel may be 
given. This should be followed by two to three ounces of hypo- 
sulphite of soda and from one to four drams of quinine three 
times a day. When the temperature drops to normal, or below, 
stimulants should be used freely for a short time and be followed 
by iron and strychnine until convalescence is established. 

When the first case appears in a herd all other animals that 
have been similarly exposed to tick infestation should be removed 
from further danger of such exposure, and thoroughly greased. 
Any cheap oil will do but if it be one third kerosene, it will be 
more effective. This will not only kill the ticks already on the 
animal but prevent others attacking it. An outbreak can usually v 
be cut short in this way and the losses reduced very considerably. 

Prevention. — Immunity to tick fever in mature animals, so 
far as we now know, can only be secured through an attack of the 
disease. Cattle raised on tick infested pastures have been ren- 



TEXAS FEVER. 147 

dered immune by mild attacks of the disease before they became 
fully susceptible. If it is true that immunity can only be secured 
through an attack of the disease it follows of necessity that the 
only preventive is the exclusion or extermination of the tick. 

The ticks on any pasture or farm may be easily and quickly 
exterminated and the farm easily maintained free from ticks. 
Hence, it is possible, if not yet practicable, to exterminate the 
ticks over the entire South and maintain the country tick-free. 

METHODS BY WHICH TICKS MAY BE EXTERMINATED. 

1. Keep all cattle, mules and horses out of the tick infested 
pasture, lanes, and lots for one season, or at least, after Septem- 
ber ist, and the ticks will be exterminated by the next spring. 

2. Divide the pasture by a fence, with a rail or board tight 
on the ground, and keep all cattle, mules and horses out of one- 
half this year after September ist, and out of the other half next 
year, and the work of exterminating the ticks will have been ac- 
complished. 

3. If possible burn the pasture over thoroughly, in the spring. 
Mix sulphur with the salt given the cattle — one part of sulphur to 
three of salt. Begin not later than April 15th and grease the legs 
and under parts of the body of all cattle, once a week, all sum- 
mer. In greasing look carefully for any ticks that may have es- 
caped the grease or attached themselves to the upper parts of the 
body. If any are found pick them off and burn. The grease 
should be one-third kerosene and the other two-thirds any cheap 
sort available. If a little sulphur and tar be added the effect 
may be improved. 

This third method requires considerable care and thorough, 
regular work to make it effectual and is only practicable when 
the number of cattle is not too large. 

Concerning the life history. — The methods just given are 
based on the following facts concerning the life history of the 
tick: The full-grown female tick drops off the cattle when she 
becomes engorged with blood. Her heavy body and small, short 
legs make crawling difficult, so she gets under the dry grass, or 
"trash" close at hand. In two or three days she begins laying 
eggs and lays from 1,500 to 2,500 during the next two weeks. 
In very warm weather, under the most favorable conditions, these 



148 COMMON DISEASES. 

eggs hatch in about three weeks. The period may be prolonged 
for eight weeks, or indeed, the hatching prevented entirely if the 
weather is sufficiently cold. 

The young ticks when first hatched are very small, being 
scarcely visible. They crawl up the grass, weeds, or small twigs 
and there wait for the cattle to come along. If the cow does not 
come along for three months, he will still be there waiting for her. 
If no cow, mule, or horse comes along in three or four months 
these small ticks die from starvation, for they have no other 
known means of obtaining food for development. If the young 
tick succeeds in lodging upon the skin of a cow, then in three or 
four weeks (and in cold weather much longer) they reach their 
full growth. The females being engorged with blood drop off 
and begin laying eggs as did their mothers. 

Neither old nor young ticks crawl far, hence a fence with a 
bottom rail or board on the ground will stop them, but wire 
fences do not always afford protection. 

Ticks do not crawl from one animal to another. 

Eggs laid during the cold weather of late fall and early win- 
ter do not hatch, hence go through the winter as eggs and hatch 
when warm weather comes in the spring. 

All eggs laid before September ist will probably hatch the 
same fall and, therefore, the young ticks will be killed by the cold 
winter weather or starve to death before spring. 

Inoculation. — Xot only does tick fever kill hundreds of thou- 
sands of dollars worth of Southern cattle every year and depre- 
ciate the value of all those marketed from one-fourth to one-half 
cent per pound live weight, but it also offers the greatest existing 
barrier to the improvement of the quality of Southern cattle by 
rendering the importation of pure bred animals for breeding pur- 
poses extra hazardous and expensive. 

For the purpose of conferring immunity on imported pure 
bred or other cattle, a method of inoculation has been found prac- 
ticable which reduces the loss from fifty per cent or more to ten 
per cent or less. 

Method. — The process consists in drawing from i c. c. to 2 
c. c. of blood from the jugular vein of an animal not less than two 
years old that was infested with ticks the preceding summer, and 
injecting it immediately under the skin of the animal to be inocu- 



TEXAS FEVER. 14^ 

lated. This will produce tick fever in from seven to ten days. 
From this not more than one to three per cent will die if the 
subjects have been selected with proper care and are judiciously 
handled. 

Important conditions. — The animals should be between nine 
and fifteen months old. 

The inoculating should be done during December, January or 
February, for tick fever is less severe in cold weather. 

All ticks should be kept off the inoculated cattle until they 
have fully recovered from the inoculation fever. 

The inoculated cattle should at first be protected from gross- 
tick infestation by having their legs and under parts of their 
bodies greased. 

The inoculated animal should be infested with the first crop- 
of ticks appearing in the spring, for these are probably less viru- 
lent than those hatched in the fall, and therefore, produce a type 
of disease intermediate in severity between the inoculation fever 
and that caused by the fall ticks. 

If these precautions are taken not more than three to five- 
per cent will die from tick infestation after inoculation. 

In the opinion of the writer the best method of introducing 
pure bred animals for improvement of the native stock is to im- 
port calves under four months old and allow them to become 
immunized by tick infestation as occurs with our native born 
stock. 



LECTURE XXXVI. 
TUBERCULOSIS. 

Importance of the question is evidenced by the fact that 
human consumption and bovine consumption are apparently the 
same disease, and this disease may probably be transmitted from 
cattle to people. It is unquestionably the most serious question 
now confronting the medical profession. 

Prevalence. — The most widespread and universal disease af- 
fecting either humanity or domestic animals. This is shown by 
reports coming from all parts of America and the civilized world. 
Probably much more prevalent among cattle than suspected This 
disease prevails among all of the domestic animals, excepting pos- 
sibly sheep. Concerning the susceptibility of these animals there 
is some discussion. Prevalence is probably greatest in the various 
classes of animals in the order named : cattle, hogs, horses. 
Chickens are also quite susceptible. 

A careful study of prevalence according to class and condi- 
tion has shown just what any student of sanitary conditions 
should expect. The percentage was highest in each comparison 
among "pure breds/' in "city dairies," and "poor condition of 
stables," and "poor ventilation ;" but it was shown that farm con- 
ditions, good stables and good ventilation did not prevent infection. 
The percentage in pure bred herds is much higher among grades 
or natives. These records must not be taken to indicate that far- 
mers should not improve their stock or that pure bred herds 
should not be maintained. The evident suggestion is that it is 
unwise to attempt improving a herd by tuberculosis stock or to 
found a herd upon such stock. 

Cause. —No fact in medicine is better established than that 
tuberculosis is caused by the bacillus of tuberculosis. We cannot 
have tuberculosis without these germs, and it is probable that no 
domestic animals or man can be placed under continued exposure 
to the germs without ultimately having the disease. Certain pre- 



BOVINE TUBERCULOSIS. 



151 



disposing conditions undoubtedly have much to do with the de- 
velopment of this disease; for instance, close confinement, lack 
of ventilation and sunshine, injudicious inbreeding" and inherited 
susceptibility. 

Modes of entrance. — (i) Lungs, with inhaled air; (2) 
stomach and intestines, with food and drink; (3) by inoculation 
through broken skin or mucous membrane; (4) by infection in 
utero, i. e., before birth. This (4) is very rare and probably of 
small importance compared with the others. 




FIG. 57. BOVINE TUBERCULOSIS. <JI. H. R.) 
A case showing plain symptoms of disease. Rare type. 



Structures affected. — Tuberculosis may affect any tissue or 
organ of the body. Milk from tuberculous cows may be tubercu- 
lous, but the danger is especially great when the udders are af- 
fected. 

Extent of tissue diseased may vary from a few small lym- 
phatic glands to a general invasion of lungs, liver, kidneys, mesen- 
teric glands, peritoneum and pleura. 

Symptoms. — These vary according to extent and location of 
the disease. A few cases become thin and rough in appearance, 
and have chronic cough or chronic diarrhoea and show that they 



152 



COMMON DISEASES. 



are in a debilitated condition. The great majority of these cases 
show no symptoms but on the contrary appear to be in the finest 
physical condition. There are a great many mild or latent cases, 
having but a small amount of tissue diseased, and the animals may 
live for many years. They may possibly die at old age, but on 
the other hand they may succumb to a sudden development of 
the disease following any condition which produces debility. 




-. 



FIG. 58. BOVINE TUBERCULOSIS. (M. H. R.) 
A famous show steer, in prime "condition." Liable to be as badly dis- 
eased as the preceding. 

When the lungs are involved, there may be a persistent cough, 
shortness of breath, pallor of visible mucous membranes, loss of 
flesh and unusual sounds in the lungs. 

When intestines and mesenteric glands are affected, there 
may be chronic diarrhoea with slow and persistent loss of condi- 
tion. All these diagnostic symptoms may vary greatly and are 
often unreliable ; e. g., a cow may be in good flesh, hair and eyes 
bright, and yet ready to die in a short time. 

Diagnosis. — The only reliable test is tuberculin, or Koch's 
lymph, which seems to be very accurate. An average of tests 
and post-mortems of reported cases shows an accuracy of over 90 
per cent. Tuberculin is used by injecting a definite quantity un- 



BOVINE TUBERCULOSIS. 153 

der the skin with a hypodermic syringe. Temperature is taken 
before and after the injection. A pronounced rise of tempera- 
ture (2 degrees F., or more) ordinarily shows the presence of 
tuberculosis. 

Treatment is not practical. It is usually advisable to destroy 
or isolate diseased animals at once. 

Prevention. — Stockmen should breed with a view to increas- 
ing physical vigor instead of breeding fit subjects for tubercu- 
losis, as many are doing. Bear in mind that an animal may give 
a fine physical appearance, and yet be easily susceptible to disease 
or be actually diseased. 







FIG. 59. BOVINE TUBERCULOSIS. (M. II. R.) 

A great variety of tubercles on the chest lining (costal pleura). Sternum 
below, broken ribs above. 

The practice of keeping cattle almost continuously in the 
stable does not harmonize with plain teachings of physiology, and 
the results of this practice must sooner or later be disastrous. 
The great law of animal life, that use begets strength and idle- 
ness begets disease, applies to lungs, as well as to muscles, and 
must always hold true. Animals cannot remain permanently 
healthy without a reasonable amount of exercise, sunshine and 
fresh air. If lungs are used less than nature intended, they must 

Vet. Studies— 10. 



154 



COMMON DISEASES. 



necessarily lose in tissue nutrition and vitality, and gradually be- 
come absorbed or diseased. It is reasonable to expect such lungs 
to become tuberculous, for cattle and people alike have frequent 
opportunities for infection. We must realize that nature's laws 
cannot be violated without paying an inevitable penalty. 

It is unwise to buy cattle for breeding purposes without 
knowing that they are free from tuberculosis before placing with 
the herd. All sires, and it is especially true of cattle, should have 
abundant exercise in open yards or on tread mills, or be driven 
or worked. Ventilation must be thorough and barns should be 
constructed with a view to allowing the entrance of unlimited 
sunshine. Sunshine may spoil the luster of hair, but it also kills 
eerms. 




FIG. 60. BOVINE TUBERCULOSIS. (M. H. R.) 

Tubercles on the great mesentery. 



Summary. — Do not found a herd with tuberculous stock. • Do 
not introduce the disease while trying to improve a herd. Do 
not allow suspicious animals to stand in stable with healthy ones. 
Avoid incautious breeding, and close confinement. Ventilate 
freely. Allow plenty of fresh air, exercise and sunshine especially 
to breeding stock. 



BOVINE TUBERCULOSIS. 155 

Disposition of tuberculous cattle. —Abundant experiments 
have demonstrated that sound calves can be raised under favor- 
able conditions from tuberculous cows. It is sometimes practical 
to free a herd from tuberculosis by breeding out the disease, in- 
stead of by immediately killing all diseased animals. It may be 
wise in most cases to slaughter tuberculous bulls and other tuber- 
culous members of the herd which the owner does not think it 
advisable to keep in partial quarantine at a somewhat increased 
expenditure of time and money. It is generally recognized that 
tuberculous animals should be slaughtered under inspection and 
certain carcasses passed as fit for food purposes. It may be ad- 
visable to feed such animals for a few months before slaughter. 

The tuberculous cows retained for breeding must be kept in 
a separate stable or in a tightly partitioned off portion of the 
common stable. They must not be watered at the same tank nor 
fed from common mangers or vessels. The danger in allowing 
tuberculous and non-tuberculous cattle to associate in the open 
air is slight, probably. The tuberculous cows may be used for 
breeding purposes, and one or more crops of calves secured before 
the cows are finally disposed of. The calves must be raised upon 
the milk of healthy cows, or boiled milk from tuberculous cows. 
From 80 to 90 per cent of such calves may be raised free from 
tuberculosis. 



LECTURE XXXVII. 
THE TUBERCULIN TEST FOR TUBERCULOSIS. 

Tuberculin is usually seen in fluid form and is then a thin, 
watery, straw-colored fluid, slightly more viscid than water, due 
to the presence of glycerine used in making up the solution. 

Tuberculin is a chemical product from the bodies of the 
bacilli of tuberculosis, and is made as follows : a certain kind of 
broth is infected with the bacilli of tuberculosis. The bacilli are 
then allowed to multiply and grow in this medium until it has 
become charged with this germ product, tuberculin. The whole 
fluid is then passed through a porcelain filter and heated to kill 
any germs that may possibly have passed through a defective 
filter. It is therefore not only germ-free, but has also been raised 
to a high temperature and cannot be infectious. 

Effect on cattle. — Careful experiments have demonstrated 
that tuberculin has no important effect, favorable or otherwise, 
upon the health or milk flow of sound cattle ; and that the effect 
on tuberculous cattle is favorable rather than otherwise. An ex- 
periment was conducted at the Minnesota Experiment Station a 
few years ago, which included 23 sound and 5 tuberculous cows, 
and compared the total milk flow and total butter fat of the herd 
for the week prior to test with the week of test. In this experi- 
ment the cattle were given ordinary handling, neither very rough 
nor unusually gentle. 

There was a moderate decrease in the milk flow during the 
two days of test, not more than could be easily accounted for by 
unusual handling of the cattle and the presence of strangers. 
This decrease was almost made up during the succeeding five days. 
There was a slight increase of butter fat during the week of test. 
Both variations were easily within the limits of normal variation. 

The experiment with the five tuberculous cows gave about 
the same results, the difference being easily within the limits of 
normal variations, neither the total milk flow nor total butter fat 



THE TUBERCULIN TEST. 157 

being materially affected by the test. Similar experiments have 
been made elsewhere, the results agreeing very closely with this 
general statement. It is undoubtedly possible for cattle to be so 
roughly handled during test that the milk flow might be seriously 
affected, but this cannot be charged to the tuberculin. In cases 
where serious results accompany or follow tuberculin tests, the 
disturbance can usually be traced to some cause other than tuber- 
culin. 

Accuracy. — Averages of very large numbers" of animals 
tested show that tuberculin has had an average accuracy in diag- 
nosis of over 90 per cent, and in the hands of many veterinarians 
who have been very careful in their work, it has been almost 
infallible. Very advanced cases sometimes, although rarely, fail 
to react. Such cases are easily detected by ordinary symptoms, 
as a rule. 

The test. — Any number up to 60 or 70 may be included in 
one test. Larger numbers can only be handled to advantage by 
one who is thoroughly familiar with the test and who can use a 
number of thermometers. 

The injection is made on the neck just in front of the shoul- 
der or else just back of and a little above the elbow. 

At least two assistants are needed : one to hold a lantern and 
assist in managing the cattle, another to hold some sort of a tray, 
usually a short piece of board, for carrying the needed materials. 
There will be needed an ordinary tumbler with a good layer of 
cotton or oakum on the bottom and filled with 4 per cent carbolic 
solution ; a one dram graduate, measured also for c. c.'s ; a vet- 
erinary hypodermic syringe, holding 3 to 5 c. c, and provided 
with several short and reasonably strong needles. The syringe 
rinsed out with the carbolic solution occasionally, 
is carried in the carbolic solution, except when in use, and may be 

If the operator is without sufficient help, a bicycle lantern can 
be held in one hand while making the injection with the other. 
• By raising the skin with the thumb and first two fingers, a sort 
of pocket can be made into which the needle can be thrust with 
considerable force without penetrating deeply into the muscle. 
The needle should be inserted by a quick stab, entering at right 
angles to the skin surface. It is usually advisable for the operator 
to stand well forward by the cow's shoulder. Some cattle are 



158 COMMON DISEASES. 

inclined to kick just as the operator steps out of the stall. This 
can be prevented by an assistant giving the tail a vigorous pull 
sidewise. 

Two periods. — The time of each test is divided into two 
periods: (A) the day before, and (B) the day after injection. 
During (A) the temperatures are taken at 8 and 10 a. m., then at 
2, 6 and 8 p. m. The tuberculin is then given by hypodermic in- 
jection at 9 p. m. During (B) the temperatures are taken at 6, 
8, io and 12 a. m., and 2, 4, 6, and 8, and sometimes 10 p. m. 

The thermometer. — Self registering thermometers, commonly 
known as fever or clinical thermometers, are necessary for this 
work, and they should all be correct between 100 and 105 F. All 
thermometers used should first be tested on the same animal and 
the records compared. Any thermometer which varies one de- 
gree or more from the records shown by the others should be dis- 
carded. 

Temperatures are taken by inserting the thermometer into the 
rectum or vagina, usually the former. The following simple de- 
vice has been found very satisfactory. A ruboer band is fitted 
with a wire hook at one end and ring at the other. The middle 
of the band is then connected with the top of the thermometer 
by a stout string about 5 inches long. The thermometer is in- 
serted and the band hooked around the base of tail. This per- 
mits the operator to use a large number of thermometers and 
prevents them from falling to the floor and breaking. 

Dose. — The dose is about 1 c. c. or % dram Bureau tuber- 
culin per 500 pounds live weight. The doses may be measured 
directly from the bottle, or one or two bottles at a time can be 
emptied into a small vessel from which the doses can be more 
conveniently poured into the small graduate. It is very conveni- 
ent to use a syringe with graduated piston rod or barrel and 
measure the doses in the syringe. 

Cautions. — The cattle must be kept under the same condi- 
tions as nearly as possible on both days; i. e., watered at the same 
hours and fed at the same hours on each day, given as nearly 
as possible the same amounts and treated alike on the two days in 
every respect. 

There are several possibilities of error if operator is not care- 



THE TUBERCULIN TEST. 159 

ful, accurate and observing. The cattle must not be excited or 
worried in any way but kept as quiet as possible during the whole 
test. If the whole stable or any portion of it be much warmer 
on the second day, than on the first, note should be made of the 
fact and it should be considered in making the diagnosis in doubt- 
ful cases. 

Cattle that show high temperatures during period (A) should 
ordinarily be released from test, except in case of heavily pregnant 
cows. These may be tested, if carefully handled — up to within 
two weeks of calving. It is always possible that an animal may 
show normal temperature during (A) and then be feverish from 
causes not connected with the test during ( B) . This rarely occurs 
but the possibility must be borne in mind. 

On the other hand a large quantity of very cold water may 
reduce the temperature one or even two degrees at a critical time 
in a low reaction. 

Importance to breeders. — The value of the test to breeders 
lies in the fact that it enables them to know whether their cattle 
are free from tuberculosis, and it enables them to free their herds 
and put them on a sound and healthy basis in case they are dis- 
eased. 

Diagnosis is made mainly upon the fever reaction : i. e., if 
the temperature rises between 8 and 20 hours after the injection 
2 degrees or more above the normal range, as shown by compari- 
son of the (A) and (B) temperatures and careless errors have 
been avoided, it is safe to diagnose tuberculosis. A rise of 1.5 to 
2 degrees may be called suspicious and the animal held for future 
retest. 

The reaction. — A typical reaction is one wherein there is. 
gradual rise and gradual decline. Very abrupt changes should 
be verified with a different thermometer. When the first (B) 
temperature is not taken until eight or ten hours after injection, 
there may be a gradual rise and a maximum reached before this 
first (B) temperature is taken. One or two high temperatures 
during (B) with the others normal or nearly so, should not be 
considered as more than doubtful or suspicious. 

Animals that react sometimes show diarrhea and a local swell- 
ing at the site of injection. 



LECTURE XXXVIII. 
AZOTURIA. 

Prevalence. = — Azoturia is a common and very serious disease 
which affects horses under certain well defined conditions. It is 
frequently fatal and always affects the best and most valuable 
horses and is so very easily prevented that it would seem as though 
the farmer should be familiar with this disease, and his knowl- 
edge should come along other lines than that of sad experience. 
Farm horses in the Northwest do comparatively little work dur- 
ing the winter, and are in high flesh when early spring work opens. 
This condition, together with the fact that the early spring is 
necessarily a season of irregular work, will explain why so many 
cases of azoturia occur during the spring months. 

History. — Azoturia rarely appears among horses at pasture 
or among those doing regular work ; but almost invariably during 
exercise after a period of idleness on full feed which has succeeded 
a previous period of work. 

This disease is frequently confounded with colic; sometimes 
farmers call it spinal disease, and sometimes it is thought to be 
an inflammation of the kidneys ; but is easily distinguished from 
any of these by the history, which is very uniform; by the symp- 
toms which appear, and by the condition of the urine. 

Parts affected. — This is not a disease of the kidneys as one 
would naturally think from the color and condition of the urine, 
but primarily a disease of the muscles, then of the blood and ner- 
vous system. The blood is dark and tarry, has a varnish like 
gloss and does not coagulate after death. The liver and spleen 
are engorged and may be more or less disorganized after death. 

Duration. — Mild cases may recover in three or four days. 
The more severe cases either die in a few clays or there may re- 
main a persistent and more or less complete paralysis of the hind 
quarters and limbs for several weeks. 

Causes. — Predisposing and precipitating. 



AZOTURIA. 161 

The predisposing causes are the factors which favor the de- 
velopment of the disease and include the following: high flesh, 
diet rich in proteid, and full feed during a period of rest, follow- 
ing a period of regular work. Most cases appear during the 
prime of life. Mares are more frequently affected than geldings, 
but all are liable. 

The chief precipitating factor is active exercise following 
idleness on full feed under conditions above given. It is probable 
that there occurs an accumulation of surplus proteid matters in 
the system during the period of idleness, which are rapidly dis- 
organized when exercise begins. Just how this excess of 
proteid matters in the body serves to develop the disease, and 
what the close connection between this condition and the symptoms 
which appear, are matters of interesting scientific speculation but 
need not be discussed here. What part may be played in this 
disease by sudden exposures to cold after confinement in warm, 
damp stables is a point of dispute. Some very good and recent 
authorities ascribe a very prominent place to this condition among 
the causes of azoturia. It is quite possible that the two condi- 
tions of accumulated proteids and sudden exposure to cold may be 
associated in many cases. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms appear suddenly with little or no 
warning and are very uniform. The horse frequently comes out 
of the stable feeling unusually well, then after going a short dis- 
tance there is a sudden lameness or stiffness in his hind legs. 
Sometimes both are affected alike but usually one first. The 
horse staggers, is very weak on his- hind legs and may fall before 
he can be unhitched. These patients perspire very freely before 
and after going down; the muscles over the loins and hips are 
rigid to the touch, and frequently tender on pressure and may 
tremble or twitch. 

The urine is highly colored, varying from red to almost black 
and is usually increased in specific gravity ; i. e., heavier than 
natural. This abnormal color is due to the presence of the red 
coloring matter of the blood and voluntary muscles (lean meat), 
and may be absent in mild cases. 

The pulse may run up to 60 or 80 per minute (normal 42 to 
48) ; the temperature may be increased to 102 or 104 (normal 
101.5), but in many cases the pulse and temperature vary but lit- 



162 COMMON DISEASES. 

tie from the normal. The bowels may be normal and the appetite 
fairly good in mild cases. The skin sensation may be diminished 
as shown by pricking with a pin. The natural peristaltic action 
of the intestines may be suppressed, but the bowels will usually 
vacuate under the influence of an injection or other local irrita- 
tion. A chronic paralysis affecting one or both hind limbs may be 
a very troublesome factor in the case. 

Prevention. — Prevention is simple, easily applied and without 
expense, and this is the point that should be considered by the 
farmers, rather than treatment, which is frequently unsatisfactory 
even when the patient recovers ; moreover, one attack predisposes 
to others. A horse that has had azoturia once is very apt to have 
it again, and the second attack is more easily brought on than the 
first. Preventing the first attack may be the prevention of several 
attacks and of the final death of the horse. 

There is but slight danger of azoturia for the horse that is 
thin and weak, for the young colt or for the aged horse, for this 
disease usually affects the best horse in the barn, one in good flesh 
and in the prime of life. When such a horse has been working 
on full feed for a time and must then stand idle for a few days 
or even twenty-four hours, make a very large reduction in the 
grain ration or stop all the grain if the horse is quite fat, for a 
fat horse needs but little grain when standing idle under any con- 
ditions, and especially is this true if he has recently been at work. 
Allow plenty of water and turn out in the yard every day if 
possible. It would be still better if the. horse could be continued 
at light work. When such a horse has been standing for some 
time after previous exercise, and the grain has not been reduced 
as it should have been, the next best thing is to give a decided 
cathartic, e. g. a quart of raw linseed oil thirty-six hours before 
hitching, and then work very moderately the first day, for quick 
or violent exercise seems more liable to bring on an attack than 
slow and gentle use. This should be borne in mind when taking 
any horse out for the first time after a period of idleness. 

Treatment. — These are difficult cases to treat and this part 
of the work should be done by competent veterinarians whenever 
such are accessible. The treatment of azoturia is frequently 
unsatisfactory, even with the most skillful practitioners in charge. 
The principle purpose of this lesson is to direct the attention to 



AZOTURIA. 163 

prevention and not toward treatment, but cases will arise through 
the hired man's anxiety to have his horses look well when the 
owner is in no wise to blame, and these cases will occur, too, in 
parts of the state where competent veterinarians are not located. 

If not voided naturally, means should be taken to draw the 
urine as soon as possible after the disease appears, and three times 
daily thereafter, if there is any one at hand who can do this. This 
is an important feature in the treatment of severe cases. The 
azoturia patient has a much better chance for recovery if he can 
be kept upon his feet a portion of the time at least, and it is very 
desirable that this be done for several reasons ; but slings should 
not be used unless the patient can support a portion of the weight 
upon the limbs. When the patient is unable to do this put him 
in a clean, dry stall with plenty of bedding and turn him three 
times daily until he can stand with the aid of a sling. 

The central purpose in treatment is to stimulate the excre- 
tory organs and thus secure rapid elimination of the abnormal and 
injurious matters in the blood. Cases that show difficulty in 
breathing with full pulse should be bled from two to five quarts, 
depending on the condition of the pulse while blood is being 
removed, then give one quart of raw linseed oil, or better, give 
one ounce of aloes with two drams ginger made into a pill with 
a little molasses ; encourage the horse to drink as much as possible, 
and, if he will not drink freely, he should be drenched often with 
water or be given weak salt brine to make him thirsty. The more 
he drinks within reasonable limits the better. If restless and vio- 
lent, the patient should have a sedative ; e. g., one ounce bromide 
of potassium with three drams fluid extract of gelsemium, given 
in half a pint of syrup. The muscles of the hips and loins should 
be fomented with hot water twice daily, two hours each time dur- 
ing the first three days of the illness, and after this a stimulating 
liniment should be used over these muscles twice daily until the 
patient has recovered. 

One or two hours after the physic and sedative dose two table- 
spoonfuls of the following prescription may be given in half a pint 
of cold water or syrup, every two hours, till all is given : 

F. e. colchicum sem I oz. 

F. e. pilocarpus 3 

Spirits aeth. nit 6 



164 COMMON DISEASES. 

The purpose of this prescription is to stimulate and assist the 
kidneys and skin to excrete rapidly. When chronic paralysis 
remains after the acute stage has passed, nux vomica should be 
given. Give one to two drams fluid extract nux vomica or one 
to three grains strychnine sulphate twice daily in feed, beginning 
with small doses and gradually increasing until there appear 
symptoms of nervousness and muscular twitching, when the dose 
should be discontinued or rapidly reduced. 

Prognosis. — Estimates of results must be given with great 
caution, for sudden and unexpected changes may occur. Perhaps 
40 to 60 per cent die in general practice. Prognosis is bad, when 
complete paralysis occurs ; when the disease develops violently 
from the start, the horse going down at the beginning and soon 
loses control of the hind limbs or when the patient grows more 
and more restless during progress of the disease, or is unable to 
stand or support part of the weight in the sling. If patient can 
stand alone or can stand fairly well when assisted by sling, the 
prospects are favorable. 



LECTURE XXXIX. 
LYMPHANGITIS AND HEAVES. 

Definition. — Lymphangitis is an inflammation of various 
lymphatic tissues. It appears suddenly and is quite painful. 

Cause and history. — This disease usually appears among 
horses of sluggish temperament, at least these are most susceptible. 
It almost invariably occurs among horses that are well fed, and 
after a period of idleness. 

Symptoms. — This disease usually makes its appearance with 
a chill, followed by fever. The horse is uneasy. A sudden swell- 
ing appears on the upper portion of the hind limb, on the inside, 
gradually increasing and extending around the limb and then 
downward never passing below the hock. The horse is lame, and 
the affected limb is very sensitive to the touch. The horse per- 
spires freely; pulse, respiration and temperature are all increased. 
The bowels are constipated and the urine is scanty. 

The disease develops for about two days, then maintains its 
severity for a similar period. This is followed by an abatement 
of symptoms. Most of the swelling subsides. There usually re- 
mains some slight thickening, and the disease is apt to recur, each 
time leaving something of an increased enlargement, until finally 
there has developed what is known as elephant leg. 

Prevention. — Very greatly reduce the grain ration during the 
idle period. 

Treatment. — Hot fomentation over the swollen part, to be 
continued for several hours. Between the periods of fomentation 
there should be given vigorous friction, rubbing upward, and long 
continued light exercise — if the horse is able to walk at all. The 
horse should be kept walking about slowly for several hours at a 
time. During the first three or four days, and until the active 
symptoms abate, the food should be light, laxative and later on 
the horse may be returned to full feed. 



166 COMMON DISEASES. 

HEAVES. 

Definition. — A disturbance of the process of respiration, char- 
acterized especially by easy inspiration and difficult expiration, the 
latter being accomplished by two distinct movements. It is usual- 
ly conceded to be an indirect result of a disturbance originating 
in the stomach, and affecting the lungs through the pneumogastric 
or tenth cranial nerve, from which nerve both these organs receive 
a portion of their nerve supply. 

This disease very materially lessens a horse's value and use- 
fulness. Horses so affected are often unthrifty by reason of 
chronic indigestion. Light feeders are usually free from this dis- 
ease. The air vesicles are gradually dilated, losing their elasticity, 
and even rupturing together so as to produce small cavities from 
which the air is expelled with great difficulty. The air may in 
this way escape into the interlobular tissues. 

Cause. — Generally conceded to be a reflex disturbance 
through a stomach branch of the tenth cranial nerve, which nerve 
also supplies in part the heart and lungs. We may say that the 
direct cause of this disease is excessive eating of bulky food, 
especially hay that is over ripe and dusty. Tame hay that is cut 
very ripe, and dusty clover hay are both prone to cause this 
trouble. Heaves rarely, if ever, develops on horses in pasture or 
that have only wild hay, or reasonable quantities of early cut tame 
hay. 

Symptoms. — A peculiar explosive cough usually appears be- 
fore respiration is much disturbed. Later on it is noticed that 
exercise produces marked difficulty in breathing, the inspiration 
being quite normal and the expiration being difficult. The air is 
expelled in two efforts, the latter portion of the tidal air being ex- 
pelled by a special effort of the abdominal muscles. Over feed- 
ing increases the difficulty. Some cases of heaves may be dis- 
guised temporarily by the use of drugs and feeding on concen- 
trated food. The trick may be detected by allowing the horse a 
hearty feed and then giving violent exercise, or even by the ex- 
ercise without the special feed. 

It is usually easy to distinguish between heaves and roaring. 
The latter is a disorder of the larynx due to paralysis of one of 
the laryngeal cartilages. It is shown by the abnormal sounds 



LYMPHANGITIS AND HEAVES. 167 

known as roaring or whistling, the respiratory movements of 
flank and chest being normal in character. 

Prevention. — Feed reasonable quantities of good wild hay or 
tame hay cut early. Avoid dusty foods. The amount of hay 
should be restricted and if necessary more grain may be used. 
Horses that are greedy feeders should be bedded with sawdust or 
shavings, or protected by muzzle. 

Postmortem. — On examination postmortem the lungs are 
found to be rather bloated and to contain more air than is normal. 
The chambers in the right side of the heart are somewhat en- 
larged and the walls thickened. 

Treatment. — Avoid over-ripe hay. Avoid much bulky food 
of any kind. If hay or grain is at all dusty sprinkle. Use 
horses affected with heaves for slow work. Medical treatment is 
considered to be unsatisfactory. 



LECTURE XL. 

CHOKE. 

Explanation. — Choking, as ordinarily understood, is an ob- 
struction in any portion of the pharnyx or esophagus. In horses 
this is more commonly caused by dry food, and this usually oc- 
curs in the case of horses which are rapid eaters. Cows more 
frequently choke on pieces of roots, pumpkins and old bones. 
Those cases where a long section of the esophagus is packed with 
soft, dry food, are especially difficult to handle successfully. 



FIG. 61. FOR RELIEVING CHOKE. (AI. H. R.) 
Made of No. 10 or 12 wire. 

Symptoms. — The horse or cow stops eating suddenly and 
makes ineffectual efforts to swallow, then there are spasmodic 
actions of the neck muscles. When the animal attempts to drink 
the water returns partly through the nose. If the obstruction is 
of considerable size and along the neck portion of the esophagus, 
it may usually be seen or felt. There is usually a profuse flow of 
saliva, and particularly in the case of cattle an involuntary chew- 
ing action. If the choking occurs in the thoracic portion, then 
medicines or liquids are swallowed in small quantities without 
difficulty until the esophagus is. full and return by the mouth, the 
animal being apt to cough. There is usually marked dejection 
and distress, with an appearance of anxiety. Food and water 
are refused. Cattle frequently bloat. 

Prevention. — Roots should either be sliced or pulped. It 
should be borne in mind that cows usually choke when eating hur- 
riedly especially when attempting to swallow something under 
threatened attack from some other member of the herd. Horses- 
choking on dry feed are almost invariably rapid eaters and for 
such horses it is well to avoid dry bran. The grain, especially 



CHOKE. 169- 

oats or similar food, should be given in such a way that the horse 
must get it slowly. Several large stones may be placed in the 
feed box, or the grain may be scattered over the bottom of a large 
manger. Any device which will force the horse to eat slowly 
will avoid the difficulty in normal cases. It should also be borne 
in mind that an animal which has been choked is very liable to 
have a recurrence of the same difficulty during the first week or 
two after the accident — on account of dryness with inflammation 
and irritability of the gullet. 

Treatment. — If the obstruction is within reach it should be 
removed by the hand, the teeth being held apart by some suitable 
device to protect the arm. A person with long arm and slender 
hand can frequently relieve choking in the pharnyx or upper por- 
tion of the gullet, especially with an assistant to shove the ob- 
struction upward toward the hand. 

By coughing. — Dry food that can not be reached by hand 
should be softened by the use of oily or mucilaginous drinks, and 
then gradually worked loose by manipulation. A small portion 
may be loosened from the upper end of the obstruction and the 
animal may be induced to cough it out. Then another drink is 
given and the manipulation and cough are repeated. Frequently 
the obstructing mass can be loosened at the lower portion, and 
the loosened portion swallowed. The simple device of forcing the 
horse to drink enough to fill up the upper portion of the esoph- 
agus may be resorted to, then the horse will usually cough vio- 
lently — expelling a portion of the obstruction. In case the horse 
does not cough he can be induced to do so by pinching the larynx 
and releasing suddenly. In this way considerable portions may 
be removed by each coughing. Probang should not be used in- 
cases where the choke is due to dry food. 

Mechanical means. — Solid bodies, like pieces of roots, may 
be either shoved down to the stomach, or drawn upward by means 
of a cork-screw probang. The probang consists of a smooth 
flexible tube of suitable size, with a central rod, upon the end of 
which there is placed (in some makes) a sort of cork-screw. This 
is withdrawn into the tube during introduction, when the end of 
the probang touches the obstruction the central rod is shoved 
forward and the cork-screw worked into the root or whatever the 
obstruction may be. If the obstruction fails to withdraw it is at 

Vet. Studies— 11. 



170 COMMON DISEASES. 

least broken up and softened to some extent every time the cork- 
screw is introduced. 

The simple device shown in figure No. 61 is very satis- 
factory for relieving cases of this kind. It consists of a piece of 
No. 10 or 12 wire, about 12 feet long; the ends bent together 
and twisted as shown in the cut, leaving a suitable loop at what 
was originally the middle of the wire. This is introduced into the 
gullet like a probang. The farther end passes the obstruction, 
which is then included by the loop ; the wire is withdrawn and the 
obstruction is loosened, moved upward a short distance or re- 
moved entirely. If the instrument merely loosened the obstruc- 
tion, then the process is repeated. This has proven most satis- 
factory in the writers experience. In all work of this kind the 
nose should be extended and the gullet kept in as straight a line 
as possible. 

The probang or wire loop should be introduced slowly and 
carefully. If the animal coughs the instrument should be remov- 
ed and another trial made, as the coughing indicates that the in- 
strument has entered the trachea. The introduction and after 
use of these instruments must be very gentle and cautious. 

Whole eggs that have been partly swallowed may be punc- 
tured by a large needle and then easily crushed. 

Tense, spasmodic action of the gullet may be controlled by 
the use of morphine or aconite. 

Whips and other stiff rigid instruments must be avoided, as 
they are very apt to tear the gullet just below the pharnyx. 
Whatever is used must be smooth and flexible. The after treat- 
ment consists of soft food, for at least a week. 



LECTURE XLI. 
HOVEN OR BLOAT. 

Definition. — A form of indigestion in cattle and sheep char- 
acterized by an abnormal collection of gas in the first stomach or 
paunch. 

Causes. — Sudden changes from dry food to pasture or from 
one pasture to a better one; or from grass to clover. Grasses or 
clovers seem more apt to cause hoven when the dew is on, or after 
a rain. Frosted roots and impaction from over-feeding may also 
result in arrested digestion, and then hoven ensues. 




FIG. 62. TROCAR AND CANNULA. 

For tapping bloated sheep and cattle. 

Why cattle and sheep are more apt to bloat when the dew is 
on the grass, or after a rain, may- perhaps be explained in this 
way: The grass is more palatable and also heavier, the cattle 
eat more rapidly; more air is swallowed with the food and they 
eat more than at other times. This larger quantity of food that 
is so heavy, makes such a large and heavy mass in the stomach 
that the involuntary fibres are partially paralyzed. By reason of 
the weight and stretching, digestive processes are checked and 
fermentation goes to excess. Gas accumulates until the stomach 
may be greatly distended. 

Symptoms. — Extreme distension of the stomach ; which is 
most prominent on the left side, and difficulty of breathing. The 
pulse may be nearly imperceptible. The animal moans ; may 
stagger and fall then die in convulsions. 



172 



COMMON DISEASES. 



Treatment. — If breathing is difficult, do not wait for the ef- 
fects of medicines, but tap with trocar as shown in class, high in 
left flank and well forward. See fig. 63. The tube may be left in 
some time if gas continues to accumulate. Then give the follow- 
ing as one dose in y 2 pint of syrup : 

(A) Aromatic spirits of ammonia ioz. 

Turpentine ioz. 




FIG. 63. SHOWING WHERE TO TAP. {M. H. R.) 

See white cross in the flank. 

Repeat every half hour until gas ceases to accumulate or un- 
til 6 doses have been given if necessary : or (B) give 4 oz. hyposul- 
phite of soda in 6 oz. water every half hour until gas ceases to 
accumulate or until a limit of 6 doses have been given; or (C) — 
give (A) and (B) alternating, one-half hour apart. Do not 
exercise the cow or sheep when badly bloated. This is danger- 
ous because the breathing is so greatly interfered with by the 
pressure of the stomach against the diaphragm. When the acute 
symptoms have subsided give the following for physic : 

(D) Epsom salts 1 lb. 

Glauber salts Y\ lb. 

Common salt Va Ik- 
Ginger (ground) 3 oz - 

F. e. nux vomica 3 drams. 



HOVEN OR BLOAT. 173 

Dissolve (D) in three pints hot water and give as a drench — 
repeat in 16 hours if bowels do not move freely. 

Prognosis. — A large proportion of cases recover when prop- 
erly treated soon after disease appears. 

Prevention. — A large proportion of these cases may be pre- 
vented but hoven will appear occasionally under conditions which 
cannot be prevented. Avoid as fully as possible the conditions 
that have been cited as causes. There are two methods of turning 
cattle and sheep on new pasture in the spring or at any season; 
from one pasture to a richer; or from grass to clover, with rea- 
sonable safety. First — Turn them on but a few minutes the first 
day and increase this time each day for a week. Second — Give 
the cattle or sheep a large ration of the dry food, to which they 
have been accustomed, on the evening before they are to be turned 
on ; repeat the large ration of this food the next morning, feeding 
much later than usual and then turn them out, soon as done eat- 
ing, which should be after the dew is off the grass and not soon 
after a rain. Under these conditions cattle and sheep may be 
turned on grass in the spring or on new or different pasture with 
little risk. Never make such change when the grass is wet from 
dew or rain. Pastures where the old grass stands quite heavy on 
the ground and the young grass grows up in such a way that the 
stock must eat the two together, are much less dangerous than 
those where the stock gets only the new grass. 

Causes of death. — There is usually carbonic dioxide gas pois- 
oning ; sometimes actual suffocation ; frequently rupture of the 
stomach or diaphragm. 



LECTURE XLII. 
LAMENESS. 

Definition.' — Any irregularity of the gait, regardless of cause 
or degree. 

Locating the lameness. — It is usually quite easy for any ob- 
server to recognize that an animal is lame, provided the lameness 
is at all decided, but there are many cases where the lameness is 
so very slight that it is difficult for an expert to locate it or even 
be sure that the animal is lame. 

Side. — A very common error is that of locating the lameness 
on the wrong side. This is easily avoided if one remembers that 
the head and weight of the body in general come down most 
noticeably with the sound limb. For instance, a horse being 
lame in the left front leg will drop very evidently as he lands upon 
the right front leg. 

Gait. — Some forms of lameness are detected with great diffi- 
culty when the animal is walking, but are easily seen when the 
horse is trotting. It is usually conceded that the latter is the best 
gait for diagnostic purposes, although the observer should study 
the movements at both walk and trot if possible. The pacing 
gait is rather confusing. 

The test. — The animal should be tried on both hard and soft 
ground. If the lameness is in the foot the lameness is most mark- 
ed when the animal travels on hard ground. On the contrary, 
when a horse is lame in the shoulder he is apt to travel with 
great difficulty in deep mud or in snow. 

General examination. — The horse should be examined un- 
blanketed in the stall, making him step from side to side, and 
noting how he stands at rest. Then the horse should be taken 
out and observed while walking and trotting, coming toward, 
passing by and going from the observer, the latter observing care- 
fully the movements of the entire body and the use of each limb. 
It is especially important to observe the head and hips in solving 
the first problem of locating the diseased limb. 



LAMENESS. 



175 



It should always be borne in mind that the foot is an espe- 
cially common seat of lameness. 



FROM BONE DISEASES. 

Bony growths. — Splints, spavins, ring-bones, etc., are simply 
developments of bone tissue, the result of an inflammation of the 
periosteum. These are all recognized as forms of unsoundness 
and usually cause lameness. This inflammation may have its 
origin in bruises or other injuries, or possibly the inflammation in 
this tissue may be the result of an extending inflammation from 
some adjoining tissue, but in any case the result is a projecting 
development of bony tissue. 




FIG. 64. RINGBONES. (M. H. R.) 

1, Ringbone and sidebone, with general anchylosis. 

2, Ringbone and sidebone, with general anchylosis and marked bony en- 
largement. 

3, High ringbone with anchylosis of first and second phalanges. 

4, Low ringbone with sidebone, and anchylosis of the second and third 
phalanges. 

5, Ringbone with sidebone, and unilateral anchylosis. 

Splints. — These appear as small tumors along the metacarpal 
bones usually at the junction of the large and small metacarpals. 
They may be of various shapes and sizes, but are usually small. 
They are generally more serious when located near the knee. 



176 COMMON DISEASES. 

Occasionally there appears what is known as a pegged splint, in 
which the growth extends across the back of the cannon, beneath 
the suspensory ligament. 

The lameness which results from splints is rather easily 
recognized, first, by locating the splint, noting the sensitiveness 
on pressure over this point. A peculiarity of the lameness is 
that the horse walks nearly or quite sound, but trots very lame, 
especially on hard ground. 

There is a natural tendency to recover. Lameness from 
splints is rarely seen in aged horses for this reason. 

When the splint appears very close to the knee, or in the peg- 
ged form there is less prospect of natural recovery, and with the 
latter, form lameness is very apt to be permanent, unless relieved 
by surgical means. 

Ringbone. — This is characterized by enlargement of sortie 
portion of the pastern bones. It may be in front, behind, on 
either side or extending entirely around this region. It may be 
located near the crown of the hoof or very much higher, and we 
thus have ringbone divided artificially into two classes, high and 
low. 

Ringbones are very much more serious forms of unsound- 
ness than splints, as they are more apt to be permanent in effect 
and even if the soreness be relieved there is liable to be a me- 
chanical lameness because of a stiffened joint. This unsoundness 
and the lameness resulting from it are very easily detected. 

Sidebones. — Sidebones is an abnormal condition of the lateral 
cartilages, characterized by a firmness under pressure of these 
cartilages — which should be quite elastic. The firmness is due 
primarily to a deposit of lime in the cartilage structure. Sidebones 
are detected as bone-like structures which appears above the 
crown of the hoof and just beneath the skin on either side. They 
usually cause lameness during the period of inflammation and 
hardening. In some cases the lameness is persistent. 

Spavin. — The cause of lameness which we recognize under 
the name of bone spavin is an abnormal condition of the tarsal 
bones at the lower, inner, front portion of the hock. There is 
usually something of an enlargement, varying from a very small 
growth, commonly called by horsemen a jack, to a very large 
growth which every one recognizes as bone spavin. 



LAMENESS. 177 

There is another form of bone spavin in which there is a 
slight or possibly no external development at all. In this form 
of spavin there may be diseases of the bones in the deeper parts ; 
particularly erosions of the articular cartilages. Bone spavins 
have a tendency to recover without treatment, although in many 
cases the period required for natural recovery is very long, ex- 
tending through a period of years. In other cases recovery can 
never occur. Recovery when brought about by natural or artifi- 
cial conditions implies that certain of the tarsal bones have united 
in the process called technically, anchylosis, and the inflamed sur- 
faces are no longer rubbing together as the limb moves. 




FIG. 65. SIDEBONES. (M. H. R.) 

Due to an inflammation and ossification of the lateral cartilages. 1, Nor- 
mal os pedis; 2, 3, 4, varying types of sidebones. 

Many bone spavins doubtless appear as the result of slight 
injuries in susceptible subjects, particularly those that have a 
strong hereditary tendency to diseases of this kind. 

Bone spavin is one of the most serious forms of unsoundness 
of the organs of locomotion. 

Symptoms. — A spavined horse steps on the toe, and carries 
the hock joint with as little movement as possible. The lameness 
usually disappears or at least greatly improves with exercise. 

What is known as the hock test, is made by holding up the 
limb with the hock sharply bent, for several minutes. Then the 
horse is started suddenly. In case of spavin the first few steps 
.are very lame. Old horses without spavin may respond to this 
test and lead to error if one is not careful. 

FROM SYNOVIAL MEMBRANES. 

Synovial sacs. — The ordinary wind puffs of the ankle, and 
bog spavins and thoroughpins at the hock are typical illustrations 
of enlarged synovial sacs. They are not usually trie cause of 
lameness, but are to be regarded rather as symptoms. 



178 COMMON DISEASES. 

Wind puffs usually indicate considerable amount of hard 
road work. 

Bog spavins. — These are enlargements of the synovial sac 
of the hock joint and appear at the inner and front part of the 
hock. They are often hereditary. 

Thoroughpins are very similar to bog spavins and wind puffs,, 
except in location. Thoroughpins .appear at the upper and back 
part of the hock. They may or may not connect with the synovial. 
sac of the hock joint. 

Open joint. — Lameness from open joint is quite common 
among city horses. This usually results from punctures of the 
synovial sacs and the entrance of foreign matter, resulting in an 
acute inflammation or synovitis. This form of lameness can 
usually be very easily detected, and the cause recognized. It is- 
very serious under all circumstances and frequently results in. 
loss of the animal. 

Curb. — This is a result of an injury or strain at the back 
of the hock joint and is characterized at first by a hot, sensitive 
swelling just back of the lowest part of the hock joint. After 
the period of swelling and inflammation subsides there is apt to 
remain a hard tumor, particularly on what is known as curby 
hocks. In cases of young animals given proper treatment the re- 
maining enlargement may be very slight or may practically dis- 
appear. 

Capped hock. — Capped hock is not usually a cause or condi- 
tion of lameness ; but is mentioned at this place for other reasons. 
This is an unusual prominence at the point of the hock and 
produced by bruises. Some horses get it by backing up against 
the stalls and striking so as to injure the point of the hock. 
Other cases are produced in car shipments. In other cases there 
seems to be a natural tendency and the disorder is brought about 
by very slight injuries. The first swelling may usually be reduced 
by prompt treatment, but it returns with very slight injury and 
after several attacks is apt to be permanent. This does not in- 
jure horses for actual use, but is unsightly and materially reduces 
the sale value. 



LECTURE XLIII. 
SOUNDNESS. 

If at the time of sale a horse has any disease which either 
actually does diminish the natural usefulness of the animal so as 
to make him less capable of work of any description, or which 
in its ordinary progress will diminish the natural usefulness of 
the animal, this is unsoundness. Or if the horse has, either 
from disease or accident, undergone any alteration of structure, 
which either actually does at the time or in its effects will diminish 
the natural usefulness of the horse, such a horse is unsound. (An 
old English-law definition). 

Unsoundness. — The above is a very comprehensive definition 
but soundness is usually relative, rarely if ever absolute or per- 
fect. What we mean in passing a horse as sound, is that he is 
practically sound. 

Definition. — To be theoretically sound a horse must have no 
disease or other condition that interferes or is likely to interfere 
with his usefulness, or injure his selling value. For instance, a 
horse may have a spavin which both lessens his ability to work and 
injures his selling value. The same would be true of heaves. A 
horse may have a disease from which he will recover. At the 
time of the examination he will be technically unsound. 

Unsoundness may be temporary or permanent. Temporary 
unsoundness may be illustrated by an influenza, from which a 
horse would probably recover, or light sprains, or a bruised ankle 
— from interfering. In the latter case the question would arise at 
once as to whether the interfering was due to faulty conformation 
or to faulty shoeing for the latter could be easily remedied. In 
the former case the condition would be serious ; in the latter con- 
dition it would be unimportant. 

Normal conditions.'— It is necessary first of all to get familiar 
with the usual normal and unusual normal conditions and appear- 
ances for comparison. For instance, the hocks may be perfectly 
sound, and yet have peculiar bony development. In such cases 



180 



COMMON DISEASES. 



it will generally be found that both hocks are alike. The knees 
may have similar peculiar development, and yet be perfectly 
sound. 

Examination. — An examination for soundness should be sys- 
tematic and thorough, although it may be rapidly done. Examin- 
ation should be made with a horse in the stall ; as he backs out, 
stands at rest and in motion. In the stall to see whether the 
horse cribs or weaves, or has any other stable habit which is ob- 
jectionable. As the horse backs out of the stall he may show 
peculiar use of the hind legs or imperfect control, due to serious 
disorders of the nervous system. Very frequently the first intima- 
tion of spavin may be had as the horse is made to step from side 
to side, particularly as he steps toward the spavined leg. 




FIG. 66. SPAVINS. TWO TYPES, (itf. H. R.) 

I. Spavin with Marked Bony Enlargement. A, Metatarsals; B, tarsals 
with enlargement and anchylosis. 

II. Blind Spavin. Extensive ulceration of articular surfaces; no enlarge- 
ment; no anchylosis. 2, Os calcis; 3, scaphoid or large cuneiform. 



At rest. — With the horse at rest the observer should begin in 
front and examine the ears for hearing, for tumors that may de- 
velop around the base, for split ears, etc. 

The eyes should be examined to test the sight, bearing in mind 
that moon blindness, which recurs at intervals and leaves the eye 
more or less nearly normal between times, still shows a weakened 
or squinting appearance that is suggestive. 

The nasal chambers should be examined for ulcers, scars, 
or discharges which would suggest possible glanders, bearing in 



SOUNDNESS. 181, 

mind that dishonest dealers sometimes plug the nostrils with a 
sponge to prevent the appearance of suspicious discharge. 

The teeth should be examined for evidences of cribbing, for 
age, and for a condition commonly known as parrot-mouth which 
interferes with a horse feeding in pasture. 

The lips should be examined for evidence of paralysis. The 
glands under or rather between the portions of the lower jaw 
should be examined particularly with reference to glanders. 

The poll should be examined for scars or other evidences of 
present or previous poll evil. 

The withers should be examined for scars, for discharp-in°- 
sores and other evidences of fistulous withers. 

The shoulders should be examined for sore neck and particu- 
larly so-called collar boils. The latter are either flat and broad or 
more prominent tumors, which will usually subject a horse to 
sore shoulders whenever he is put to work. 

The elbow should be examined for shoe-boil; the knee for 
what is commonly known as broken knee, which indicates that 
the horse is inclined to stumble, and also for what is known as 
knee spavin. 

The cannon or shin-bones must be examined for splints, and 
behind them the tendons must be examined for evidences of 
sprains and other injuries which are usually indicated by a thick- 
ening of the parts. 

Ankles are to be examined for evidences of interfering, and 
fractures or other injuries of the sesamoid bones and attached 
ligaments. The region of the pastern is to be examined for ring- 
bones, fractures and evidences of the operation known as nerving. 
Evidences of this operation are found in scars about midway of 
the pastern on each side, just at the edge of the back tendon. 
The sides of the back tendons should also be examined just above 
the ankle for scars, which would suggest another nerving opera- 
tion. The mere fact that a horse has been nerved, whether going 
sound at the time of examination or not, is a very serious objec- 
tion. This operation is not usually resorted to except as a meas- 
ure of last resort, and it does not in any sense cure the original 
disease. 

While passing along the side and flank the breathing should 
be observed, as to whether it is even and regular; or jerky, sug- 



182 



COMMON DISEASES. 



gesting heaves. The flank and lower part of the abdomen must 
be examined for possible ruptures. 

Stepping behind the horse the two hips are compared for 
evidences of fractures, or what is commonly known as hipped or 
hip-shot. This disorder does not interfere seriously with the 
horse's working ability, but gives the horse a very awkward ap- 
pearance and materially lessens the selling value. 




FIG. 67. NAVICULAR DISEASE. (M. H. It.) 

1, Normal navicular bone. 

2, Exostosis (bony enlargement) with fracture. 

3, Exostosis with extensive ulceration of the articular surface. 

4, 5, 6, 7, Varying types of exostosis. 

The hocks must be examined for bog and bone-spavins, 
thoroughpins, and curbs ; and the point of the hock for what is 
known as capped hock. The same examination is made of the 
cannon, ankle and pastern as for the front limbs. 

The feet should all be examined for evidences of contraction 
at the heels ; for flatness or convexity of the sole, founder, navicu- 
lar disease, and other diseases of the feet which are easily recog- 
nized. Among these should be named quarter and toe-cracks, 
and serious injuries to the crown of the hoof by sharp caulks. 

In motion. — The horse should be examined while walking 
and trotting. The movements of the neck and head are studied 
as he comes toward the observer ; then, as he passes by the move- 
ments of the limbs are noted as to the height to which they are 
raised; the bend of the joints, whether easy and natural or other- 
wise. The way in which the foot lands upon the ground, whether 



SOUNDNESS. 183 

flat, on the toe, one side, or on the heel is important. As the horse 
passes from the observer the movements of the hips and hind 
legs are noted with a view to detecting lameness in those parts. 
Examination in motion on hard road or pavement should be 
made, especially to bring out diseases of the feet. Then motion 
in deep mud, or in snow should be studied. Failing these, he 
.should be made to step over a rail or plank held up about a foot 
from the ground in order to detect or make more prominent 
possible soreness or lameness in the shoulder or hip. 

The lungs. — Finally, the horse should be given vigorous ex- 
ercise. For instance, a run to a heavy wagon, or a short run up 
hill to determine whether the lungs are normal, or in other words, 
for the purpose of testing his wind. It is possible to partially dis- 
guise abnormal breathing while a horse is at rest, but it is prac- 
tically impossible to do so if the horse is given violent exercise and 
the latter should preferably be done after feeding and watering. 

COMMON FORMS OF UNSOUNDNESS. 

The most common and obvious forms of unsoundness are : 
Bad eyes; glanders shown at the nose; poll evils just back of the 
ears, at the top of the neck ; fistula at the withers ; heaves, shown 
in breathing; splints, along the cannon; injured tendons; farcy 
sores on limbs or body ; bruised ankles from interfering ; sidebone 
and ring bones at the pastern ; navicular disease, corns, founder, 
cracks, etc. at the foot; fractured hip (hip shot) ; spavin at the 
hock in front and curb at the hock behind. 



LECTURE XLIV. 
LAMINITIS. 

Definition. —This is a painful and rather frequent disease of 
horses,- — commonly called founder. It is essentially an inflamma- 
tion of the sensitive parts within the hoof, and takes its name from 
the sensitive laminae. The third phalynx is frequently involved. 

Symptoms. ■ — The horse usually persists in recumbent posi- 
tion. There is unmistakable evidence of soreness in the affected 
limbs, coupled with symptoms of extreme pain. The respiration, 
pulse and even the temperature may be increased as a direct result 
of the great pain. If the disease affects the front feet, the horse 
carries as much of the weight as possible upon the hind feet, with 
the two front limbs projecting forward. If the hind feet are in- 
volved, the horse stands with the two front feet back under the 
body, carrying as much weight as possible, with the two hind feet 
extending forward so as to relieve the sensitive toes from pres- 
sure. 

Cause. — Laminitis results from profound disturbances of the 
circulation. The unyielding horny box does not permit expan- 
sion of the inflamed tissues, hence the great pain that is in- 
variably manifest in this disease. This disorder may have its 
origin in an unusual over feeding; or in a large quantity of very 
cold water taken when a horse is very hot or tired. It may be a re- 
sult of forcing a horse to stand on hard footing for a long time. 
It sometimes occurs in one front foot, or one hind foot, as an in- 
direct result of lameness in the opposite limb. The horse over- 
works the sound limb in order to relieve pain in the previously 
lame one, and thus causes laminitis in the foot which had pre- 
viously been sound. Laminitis not infrequently results as a trans- 
fer from a pneumonia or bronchitis ; sometimes from inflamma- 
tion of the bowels, and apparently without other direct exciting 
cause. 

Pathology. — There is first of all an inflammation of the sensi- 
tive parts within the hoof, especially the sensitive laminae. This 



LAMINITIS OR FOUNDER. 



185 



is followed by an exudate which may be either slight or consider- 
able in amount and more or less persistent. In persistent cases, 
with considerable exudate, the toe of the os pedis (third phalynx) 
is gradually pressed downward against the sole. The sole may 
gradually become convex and the horse becomes permanently un- 
sound. 

Termination. — Laminitis may terminate in recovery and prav 
tical restoration of the affected parts, or there may remain a con- 
vex sole and a chronic soreness with a tendency for the hoof to 
grow in an unnatural shape, see figure 68. The wall becomes 
wrinkled transversely, and grows unevenly. 




FIG. 68. A FOUNDERED HOOF. 
(B. A. I.) 
An old ease. 



Treatment. — These are usually serious cases and should al- 
ways have the benefit of professional attendance and skill if such 
is obtainable. Any treatment that could be suggested might be 
unwise in some cases, and unwisely applied in others. 

A treatment that is frequently satisfactory, consists in keeping 
the feet in cold water for a long period of time, several days if 
necessary. Sometimes this may be done by standing the horse 
in a shallow stream, preferably with a soft bottom. When a horse 
must be kept in the stable he should have a large box stall with 
deep, soft bedding. If he is compelled to stana for any great 
length of time in order to keep the feet in cold water, then he 
should be supported by a sling. Severe cathartics should be 
avoided — but it may be desirable to give mild doses of aloes, or 
Epsom salts. A dose of the former for this purpose would be 
one-half ounce or less ; the dose of the latter would be about one- 
fourth pound, either repeated as necessary. Coupled with this 

Vet. Studies— 12. 



186 COMMON DISEASES. 

one ounce of saltpetre may be given, dissolved in drinking water, 
or as a drench three times daily. Ordinarily the shoes should be 
removed. The toe, if long, should be shortened, but the sole 
should not be thinned or otherwise interfered with. If the 
horse is compelled to stand he may stand more comfortably 
with shoes that are high in the center and rocking backward to- 
ward thin, flat heels. If the pain is extreme, and not controlled 
by the resting upon soft bedding and continuous application 
of cold water, then some preparation of opium should be given — 
as a matter of humanity if for no other reason. The dose of 
laudanum is about one ounce, and may be repeated two or three 
times a day, if necessary to control the extreme pain. 



LECTURE XLV. 
PARTURIENT PARALYSIS (MILK FEVER). 

Causes. • — Predisposing, and precipitating. 

Predisposing. — Age (maturity) heavy feeding and milking 
qualities, pregnancy, easy delivery, lack of exercise and consequent 
lack of physical wear, high temperature in stables. 

The cow that is in the prime of life, with her third or fourth 
calf and that is a heavy feeder and milker is the one most subject 
to this disease. Cows in thin flesh, that have been under fed dur- 
ing pregnancy, are not liable to have this disease. Neither are 
young heifers nor old cows. 

Precipitating. — Delivery, injury to genital organs sudden in- 
crease of gland activity in the udder, costiveness (both as cause 
and result) ; anxiety ; exposure to cold and damp. 

Schmidt's theory is that certain chemical poisons are formed 
in the udder, absorbed into the blood and circulated throughout the 
body, reaching the brain and spinal cord through the general cir- 
culation, and producing the general symptoms of paralysis of sen- 
sation and motion. Dr. Schmidt has noticed that the greatest 
mortality occurs when the disease appears very soon after birth, 
and incidentally that is the period of most abundant colostrum in 
the udder. If the poisons develop very rapidly and absorb rapidly 
into the blood, the animal may die suddenly ; if they develop slow- 
ly, they may be gotten rid of by being neutralized or excreted. 
According to Schmidt's theory, this disease has its origin in an 
unusually large secretion of colostrum and the poison is a product 
of chemical decomposition of the colostrum. Chemical composi- 
tion of the poison is probably variable, as the poisonous effect 
seems to vary. Cows brought to the highest state of milk pro- 
duction pass the limit of physiological conditions, and are very 
easily disturbed by taking cold, abundant diet, excessive quanti- 
ties of water or digestive disturbance (Schmidt). 

Symptoms. — Early or warning, and diagnostic or positive. 



188 



COMMON DISEASES. 



Early. — Uneasiness, sudden constipation, eyes stupid or wild, 
tail switches uneasily, milk flow checked. Such symptoms should 
warn of danger, if occurring during first five days after calving, or 
within two days before. 

Diagnostic. — Patient goes down; loses sensation and volun- 
tary motion; pupils dilate; cow lies in a peculiar position with 
head in flank ; unable to swallow ; pulse at first bounding and full 
— later depressed. 




FIG. 



69. PARTURIENT PARALYSIS— M ILK FEVER. {M. H. B.) 

Early stage. Unsteady on hind legs. 



Nervous disturbance. — Two types, torpid ; and nervous or 
violent. May be torpid at first and later change to nervous ; both 
are apt to terminate by slow collapse. 

Prevention. — This is always more satisfactory than treatment 
and is especially applicable to milk fever. For a heavy milker, 
sudden changes in diet should be avoided. Any change should be 
toward one lighter and more laxative. It is sometimes advisable 
to put up from pasture on to light, dry feed. Food should be 
light, laxative, easily digested, and small or moderate in quantity. 
A mild laxative (a) may be given 2 to 5 days before calving, and a 
cathartic (b) within 12 hours after calving. For (a) give one 
quart raw linseed oil. For (b) 1 to 2 pounds of Epsom salts with 



PARTURIENT PARALYSIS OR MILK FEVER. 



189 



2 to 5 ounces powdered ginger, dose depending on size of cow 
and condition of the bowels. Allow cows abundant exercise dur- 
ing the last month of pregnancy and if a cow is nervous, leave 
the calf with her for a few days. 

Treatment. —These cases require the highest skill in treat- 
ment, and the affected animals are usually valuable. For these 
reasons stockmen should not attempt to treat these cases if com- 
petent veterinary services may be had. A line of treatment is sug- 
gested here only because cases often occur where it is not possi- 
ble to obtain professional assistance. 



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wmm 



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if0S^^9$- 






FIG. 70. PARTURIENT PARALYSIS. (31. H. R.) 
Later stage. Head held unsteadily. 

The patient must not be allowed to lie flat on the side, but 
should be propped up by means of bags of sand, bran or hay, so 
that she lies on the sternum. If the head is thrown around vio- 
lently, it should be supported by means of a rope tied to some 
overhead support. The cow must also be kept thoroughly warm 
and dry. Equalize circulation by vigorous applications to skin ; 
e. g., mustard and turpentine. Retain heat in cold weather by 4 
or 5 blankets. Preserve quiet ; draw urine twice daily with 
catheter, and use large quantities of slightly irritating rectal in- 
jections repeated several times daily, if necessary. Use alcoholic 
preparations and mix vomica for stimulants and tonic effect. 



190 COMMON DISEASES. 

Give every two hours alcohol, i to 3 ounces; f. e., nux vomica, 3 
drams (3 teaspoons) in eight ounces of syrup. Repeat until cow 
shows signs of nervousness. Use the nux vomica also in later 
stages if motor paralysis remains, after acute stage has passed. 
Beware of choking for these patients cannot swallow safely after 
the disease has made much progress. Test first with plain water 
the ability to swallow easily. 

The most recent and successful treatment is injection of 
potassium iodide solution into the udder through the teats. This 
is known as Schmidt's treatment. 




FIG. 71. PARTURIENT PARALYSIS. 

Cow very stupid. Skin has lost sensation. Head in the flank. Still later 
stage. 



Schmidt's Treatment is directed to the local seat of trouble; 
i. e., the gland cells and milk ducts, and may be used in connection 
with the preceding. 

About 2~y 2 drams iodide of potash are dissolved in one quart 
of boiled water. One-fourth of this is injected by means of a 
syringe or by means of rubber tubing and a milk tube through 
each teat into the udder. Each quarter is thoroughly milked out 
just before the injection is made. The solution should be injected 
at about 105-8 F., and left in the udder. It should be borne in 
mind that the solution cools several degrees during injection. The 
temperature should not be guessed at. It can be determined ac- 
curately by means of a dairy thermometer. 

Treatment may be repeated in 12 or 24 hours if needed, cow 



PARTURIENT PARALYSIS OR MILK FEVER. 191 

in the meantime being carefully treated as to position, etc., as 
already suggested. 

Prognosis. — Difficult to make an accurate estimate. Sudden 
and unexpected variations occur. Average loss under the Schmidt 
treatment is not large. Unfavorable if: Case develops soon 
after calving; it develops rapidly and seems to overwhelm the 
system ; decided loss of animal heat ; tympanites or bloating ; con- 
vulsions ; cornea becomes insensible ; lower lip hangs loosely. 

Favorable if : Circulation remains good ; feces are passed ; 
patient attempts to rise or eat; slight fever while circulation is 
still weak ; if rectal or vaginal irritation causes a discharge of 
feces or urine. 



LECTURE XLVI. 
SAND COLIC* 

Occurs in horses, mules, and cattle. Especially common 
in portions of the South. 

Organs involved. — In horses the sand may be in the stomach, 
the small intestines and in the large intestine (caecum and colon). 
The sand accumulates most frequently in the caecum and large 
colon. 

In cattle the sand may be found in any of the stomachs and 
the intestines. Dieckerhoff says the sand accumulates usually in 
the second and third stomachs, and small intestines (duodenum). 
Harms claims that it collects in the second and first most fre- 
quently. 

Causes. — Drinking in shallow water and sucking up the sand 
with the water ; grazing in short, sandy pastures ; eating sanded 
hay, fodder or grain ; and the habit of eating dirt, or eating grain 
from the ground. 

Symptoms. — Chronic indigestion ; periodic attacks of colic 
and diarrhoea ; passing of sand ; obstruction of the alimentary 
canal (impaction). In cattle the loss of appetite; suspension of 
rumination ; fermentation and bloat ; impaction with obstruction 
of the intestinal canal ; and oftentimes chronic indigestion attended 
by emaciation, and in cows decrease of milk flow. 

Diagnosis. - — Sometimes sand may be observed in the feces. 
Rectal exploration may enable, one to feel the sand in the colon or 
caecum. It is difficult to distinguish this disorder from chronic 
indigestion, and from the impactions and intestinal calculi. Posi- 
tive diagnosis in some cases is impossible. 

Prognosis. — Many cases are fatal. 

Treatment. — Remove the cause. Massage of the abdomen ; 
rectal injections of large quantities of warm water ; flooding the 

*Contributed by Dr. C. A. Cary, Alabama. 



SAND COLIC. 193 

stomach and intestines per stomach tube with warm water 
(Dieckerhoff for cattle) ; laxative food, raw potatoes, green feed; 
oleaginous purgatives in either large doses or frequent small 
doses; and in some cases barium chloride intravenously or per 
mouth. In extremely painful cases it may be advisable to use 
morphine, chloral or cannabis indica, but as a rule it is best to 
avoid these drugs. 



LECTURE XLVII. 

SHEEP SCAB. 

Sheep scab is a result of irritation caused by little animal 
parasites as they burrow tunnels into the skin or puncture it from 
the surface. There are three types of these mites and three types 
of the disease which they cause. One variety of these mites pro- 
duces body scab, another produces head scab, and a third produces 
foot scab. 

BODY SCAB. 

General history. — This is the most common and serious type 
of sheep scab, because it spreads most rapidly over the individual 
body, and also spreads most rapidly through the flock. 

This disease appears insidiously, and is liable to become quite 
serious before being noticed by the owner. The parasites which 
cause this type of the disease do not tunnel into the skin, but they 
cause intense irritation by reason of their presence and mode of life 
beneath the scabs. The owner will usually remember, after he has 
become aware that body scab exists 'in his flock, that his sheep 
have seemed uneasy and some of them have Deen rubbing and 
biting themselves occasionally for some time. 

The parasites live beneath the crusts after the disease is well 
under way, and constantly migrate outward, while the skin slowly 
heals in the center. The fleece of scabby sheep is usually rough,, 
the wool is matted in places and. easily rubbed off. The parasites 
which cause this form of the disease confine their work almost 
exclusively to parts of the body where the wool is long and thick. 

How spread. — This form of the disease spreads rapidly 
through the flock ; partly because of the location of parasites upon 
the body of the sheep, and partly because of the freely moving 
habits of the parasites. As a rule, the disease spreads more rapid- 
ly in autumn and winter, because the wool is then long and thick, 



SAND COLIC. 195 

furnishing favorable conditions for the parasites, and because the 
sheep are kept in closer contact at these seasons. The disease 
makes more rapid progress and is much more fatal with the weak- 
er sheep. These parasites may be transferred from one sheep to 
another in a great variety of ways ; for instance, tags of wool may 
be rubbed off and dropped almost anywhere. Diseased sheep in- 
fect posts and fences by rubbing against them, and the parasites 
escape from one sheep to another while the sheep are in close con- 
tact in yards and sheds. These parasites may revive and become 
infectious after a short exposure to severe cold weather, but are 
soon destroyed by alternating changes of heat and cold. They 
may live three to four weeks, at ordinary temperatures and under 
ordinary conditions, around stables and sheds. Some authorities 
say they do not live longer than two or three weeks apart from the 
sheep's body, but it is certainly wise to extend this period to three 
or four weeks for safety. 

FOOT SCAB. 

The disease caused by these parasites appears on the feet and 
limbs. The diseased area extends very slowly, but may eventually 
reach the body. This form of scab spreads very slowly from one 
animal to another, and is therefore much less serious than body 
scab. The first symptom is reddening of the skin followed bv a 
scaly appearance, and later by light-colored scabs. The sheep 
having this disease are apt to be almost constantly stamping and 
pawing. 

Local treatment. — Any of the sheep dips recommended for 
body scab are effective for this form of the disease. A ten per 
cent solution of the creolin is simple, safe and easily applied. 

Any dip or ointment that will kill the parasites is sufficient 
early in the disease, but it may be necessary in old cases to soften 
the scabs by a little oil or a thorough scrubbing with brush and 
hot soap suds. (See treatment.) 

HEAD SCAB. 

The mites which cause this type of the disease burrow tunnels 
in the skin. The eggs are deposited in these tunnels and there 
hatched. This type of the disease usually shows its first symp- 
toms around the lips or nostrils, but may appear on almost any 



196 



COMMON DISEASES. 



portion of the head. Occasionally it invades the neck and other 
portions of the body where the wool is short. 

Local treatment. — The same as for foot scab. 

GENERAL PREVENTION". 

Prevention is more important than treatment in any case 
where it can be secured; because it is surer; it is cheaper; and is 
usually much easier to administer than medical treatment. 




FIG. 72. A PLAIN CASE OF SHEEP SCAB. 



The spread. — Whether the disease spreads rapidly over the 
body or not depends to some extent upon the thriftiness or un- 
thriftiness of the individual animal. When sheep are fat and the 
wool is well supplied with yolk this disease spreads slowly, and is 
much less serious. It should be borne in mind that sheep cannot 
have scab unless the mites first reach the surface of the body. 
The infection is frequently made when one sheep rubs against 
posts or fences where scabby sheep have previously rubbed. In 
the latter case the mites are first transferred from the diseased 
sheep to the post, and then from the post to the healthy sheep. 
In other cases the mites are transferred when a diseased sheep 
rubs against a healthy one. 



SHEEP SCAB. 197 

Exposure resistance. — The mites which cause foot scab and 
body scab have considerable vitality, being able to withstand ex- 
posure at moderate temperatures from one to two or even three 
weeks under favorable conditions, possibly longer. They die 
sooner in a dry atmosphere than moist. Cases are on record where 
sheep seem to have become infected with scab in places where 
sheep had not been kept for many months. The history of these 
cases, however, is not well understood, and it is difficult to say 
positively how long mites or their eggs may preserve vitality under 
favorable conditions. 

Precautions.- — Scabby sheep should not be driven over any 
public highway. Pens, sheds and yards which have held scabby 
sheep should be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected, and unless 
the disinfection is very thorough they should not be used for 
sheep until at least four weeks have elapsed. It is supposed that 
a hard rain will practically disinfect ground surfaces, but not 
fences and posts. Fields and pastures in which scabby sheep have 
been held should not be used again until after an interval of sev- 
eral weeks, and preferably not until after a heavy rain. 

GENERAL SYMPTOMS. 

History and diagnosis. — At the point of first infection there 
appears a small, congested area, showing plainly the result of irri- 
tation caused by the parasite, which has burrowed into the skin. 
Then there appears a little pimple, soft on top, which ruptures and 
a little fluid escapes. Dust and other foreign matter collect in this 
fluid and the initial scab is started. 

Affected sheep are usually uneasy and are seen to scratch 
against posts, rub against other sheep and even bite the itching 
surface. The irritation is most noticeable when the sheep are 
heated, as by exercise, or confined in a close room. At first the 
wool is noticed to hang in tags, the sheep begin to pull out portions 
of the wool with the mouth, and the skin becomes bare in small 
patches which gradually increase as the mites spread, irritating 
and inflaming the skin. To determine the presence of the mites, 
scrape off some of the scab and a little of the healthy skin near the 
border of the scab. Place these scrapings upon some smooth 
black surface in warm sunshine, and examine with a good hand 
lens. The mites may then be seen as minute white bodies. They 



198 



COMMON DISEASES. 



are most certainly recognized when they are seen to move, and it 
is sometimes difficult to distinguish otherwise between the mites 
and particles of light colored dust and epithelial scales from the 
skin surface. It should be borne in mind when examining a case 
of head scab that the mites which cause this disease burrow be- 
neath the surface of the skin, and it is necessary to scrape deeper 
than for ordinary body scab. 

Varieties. — Each of these three types of mites may affect dif- 
ferent domestic animals, including horses and cattle, but there 
seems to be a different variety for each domestic animal. The va- 
riety which causes scab in sheep is very similar to, but not iden- 
tical, with the variety which causes mange in horses, and the one 
which affects horses also differs from the variety of the same spe- 
cies which causes mange in cattle. The variety which belongs to 
the horse, for instance, does not thrive and multiply upon any 
other animal. 






FIG. 



Psoroptes, male {Cur- 
tice). Body scab. 



Female. 
73. SHEEP SCAB MITES. 

Sarcoptes (Lugger). Sarcoptes (Pettit). 



Head scab. 



Head scab. 



Possible mistakes. - — It is well to bear in mind that certain oth- 
er conditions may be mistaken for sheep scab, particularly disor- 
ders of the skin, produced by other external parasites ; for instance, 
lice and sheep ticks. We have had in Minnesota an interesting 
outbreak of skin disease among sheep which on superficial exami- 
nation resembled rather closely sheep scab, but was due to the 
awns of a certain wild grass (Stipea sparta) wild oats. It devel- 
oped that these sheep had been pastured where this grass was 
abundant, and at a time when the awns were readily separated. 
These little spear-like bodies gradually worked their way through 



SHEEP SCAB. 199 

the wool into the skin, causing inflammation of the skin and con- 
siderable irritation. 

TREATMENT. 

Suggestions. — Treatment is comparatively easy where there 
are but few sheep, but more difficult with large flocks. The size of 
the tank, material to be used and method of dipping must depend 
upon the number of sheep, accessibility and expensiveness of dif- 
ferent materials. The dipping, as a rule, should be clone after 
shearing, but it should be remembered that treatment for any par- 
asitic disease of sheep should be given as early as practicable. 
Some good may be accomplished if the wool is parted by hand and 
care taken to get the medicine down to the skin, but it is the usual 
experience that dipping unshorn sheep is much less satisfactory. 
The entire flock must be dipped ; that is, those that are apparently 
well as well as those that are diseased. And the owner must bear 
in mind that, even after shearing, the wool may be a source of dan- 
ger, and should be so kept and handled as to avoid the possibility 
of reinfection. Dipping is effective only when it is thoroughly 
done. Tobacco, crude carbolic acid, arsenic, lime and sulphur are 
the various ingredients that are commonly used in dipping for 
scab. The quantity of dip required per sheep varies from two to 
four gallons, according to the number of sheep dipped and the 
material used. Less dip is needed for shorn than unshorn sheep. 
It is a good rule to use any clip at about no degrees Fahrenheit, 
and a good plan to rub the scabs with a stiff brush while the sheep 
are in the dip. Dipping should be repeated in eight days, and in 
some cases it may be necessary to" give even a third dipping after 
a second interval of eight to ten days. 

Dips. — A great variety of dips have been recommended and 
successfully used. Several of the patent dips give excellent results, 
but these are usually more expensive than others and are objec- 
tionable, inasmuch as we do not know their composition. The fol- 
lowing are perhaps as good as any. 

Texas dip. — What is known as the Texas dip is composed as 
follows : Thirty pounds tobacco, seven pounds sulphur, three 
pounds concentrated lye, ioo gallons water. Allow the tobacco to 
soak in a portion of the water, which should be kept warm, for 
from eight to ten hours ; then add the sulphur, remainder of the 
water and concentrated lye, and boil for half an hour. Stir fre- 
quently while using. 



200 COMMON DISEASES. 

Zundle's. — The following is a formula for a modification of 
Zundle's dip. (Modifications suggested by Dr. Kaiser.) For one 
hundred sheep take the following: Tobacco, thirteen and one- 
half pounds. Soak for several hours in sixty-six gallons of water, 
then dissolve in this eight pounds of 'carbonate of soda, and four 
pounds freshly burned and slacked lime ; then take eight pounds of 
soft soap and dilute with some of the hot tobacco infusion and add 
to the materials previously mixed; then add four pounds crude 
carbolic acid ; mix thoroughly. Use hot. 

Dipping. — The entire flock should be first shorn, then dipped 
and confined for eight to ten days in a field or pasture where there 
had been no scabby sheep for at least two months, and then re- 
dipped and placed in another field or pasture in which there had 
been no sheep for at least two months. Each sheep should be kept 
in the dip at least two minutes by the watch, and each sheep to go 
under entirely at least once. Heavily pregnant ewes can be safely 
dipped if handled with care. In using any dip, no matter if pro- 
prietary or home made, follow directions exactly. It is not un- 
common for stock men to have unsatisfactory results from the use 
of well recognized dips, and it is usually because they try using 
the dip a little weaker than the directions call for, or because they 
were a little careless and hurried the sheep through the dipping 
vat too rapidly, or by returning the sheep after dipping to infected 
pastures or yards. 

A SMALL DIPPING VAT. 

A vat of some kind should be owned by every farmer who 
keeps many sheep, calves or hogs. It can be used for dipping any 
of these smaller animals for any of the external parasites, and this 
is a rapid and effective way of treating such parasites. 

The description of this little vat and of the method of using 
it were suggested to the writer by Mr. J. E. Story, for many years 
superintendent of the famous Bow Park stock farm in Canada, and 
a very thorough stockman. 

The vat should be made of best pine lumber, one and one- 
quarter inches thick and should be six feet long at the top and 
four and a half feet at the bottom, two feet wide and two feet six 
inches deep. One end is square and the other sloping according 
to the above dimensions. Slats are nailed across the sloping end t> 



SHEEP SCAB. 201 

assist the sheep in climbing up to the dripping- rack, which stands 
at the sloping end. The vat may be sunk in the ground from six 
to ten inches to save lifting. Each end of this vat should be sup- 
ported by two small rods across the tank about four inches from 
the top and six inches from the bottom. 

The dripping rack should be at least three feet wide and 
from twelve to twenty feet long. The bottom must be water-tight, 
and there should be a narrow slat along each side, well nailed 
down, to keep the drip from running off at the side before it 
reaches the vat. Cleats should be nailed on the bottom, as shown 
in the figure, open at the center and sloping slightly toward the 
vat. One end of the dripping rack rests on the sloping end of the 
vat and the other is supported by two legs, which should be enough 
higher than the other end to cause a free flow back into the vat. 
The dripping rack should have hurdles at the sides high enough 
to keep sheep from jumping off, and there should also be a gate at 
the farther end, which may be opened from time to time to let 
sheep off the rack. There should also be placed at the farther end 
of the rack a couple of planks with cleats so that sheep may walk 
down from the rack when they are done dripping. 

A tight wagon box with side boards, and tilted so as to drain 
into the vat, makes an excellent dripping rack for a small flock. 

A small V-shaped pen should be made of hurdles at the 
square end of the vat and the sheep may then be crowded closely 
toward the vat by means of a movable gate or hurdle at the wide 
end. Two men, one on each side at the square end of the vat, can 
easily lift the sheep, one by one, out of the pen into the vat and 
then assist them to climb up to the dripping rack, where they stand 
and drip while others are being dipped. When the rack is full, the 
gate is opened and a few of those in front are let out. 

Vet. Studies— 13. 



LECTURE XLVIII. 
NODULE DISEASE OF SHEEP. 

General history. — The history of outbreaks is often as fol- 
lows : Sheep have access during the summer and fall to pond or 
well water that receives drainage from a sheep yard or pasture. 
Perhaps the grass was short and the flock was compelled to graze 
very close. 

During the winter the flock becomes unthrifty; some indi- 
viduals grow gradually thinner and weaker until a number die 
during the late winter and early spring. As soon as the grass 
comes and the sheep are turned out they begin to do better and 
the disease seems to disappear. A dead sheep is opened and the 
intestines show a large number of nodules, about the size of gar- 
den peas. 

Cause. — The disease is caused by a minute round worm 
(Oesophagostoma columbiannm) . The adult worms are about 
half an inch in length and may be found in the intestines. The 
immature forms vary from i-ioo to 1-6 of an inch in length, de- 
pending on the age and stage of development, and are found in- 
side of the little nodules which constitute the most prominent feat- 
ure of the disease seen on examination post mortem. 

The eggs are laid by the adult female in the intestine. The 
eggs soon hatch, and the embryo worms pass through the internal 
lining of the intestine, and become imbedded, giving rise as for- 
eign bodies to the little tumors or nodules which nature throws 
around them, evidently in an attempt to fence them off. They 
cause some irritation as foreign bodies, and this irritation will ac- 
count for the little tumors which are found on the side of the in- 
testine. 

Some of the adult worms pass out with the manure, and thus 
infect the pastures and feed yards, ponds or sluggish streams 
which receive their drainage. 

Injury done. — The extent of injury to the individual sheep 
depends mainly upon the number of worms present, and the con- 



NODULE DISEASE. 



203 



dition of the sheep as to vitality and resisting power. There may 
be something of an inflammation of the bowels while the young 
worms are passing through the lining of the intestine, but the 
main injury is that of starvation. So large a portion of the bowel 
is diseased by the parasites when they are present in great number 
that there is not enough healthy tissue to absorb the food material. 
A badly infested sheep may have plenty of good food and yet be 
too weak to eat it or if able to eat, he may still be starving because 
the intestinal wall can not take up the food that may be ready for 
absorption. 




FIG. 74. NODULE DISEASE. (M. H. R.) 

Intestines of sheep. 

Older sheep suffer worse, as a rule, because the longer an in- 
fected animal lives the worse the intestines become diseased by the 
parasites. 

Diagnosis. — This can only be made by finding the character- 
istic nodules in an examination of the dead animal, for sheep in- 
fested with some other parasitic diseases, show similar symptoms 
and conditions during life. 

Treatment. — It is probable that but little can be accomplished 
by medical treatment, because the worms, during a large part of 



204 COMMON DISEASES. 

their life history, are walled up in these nodules and beyond the 
reach of any medical agent. 

It is possible that worm-destroying medicines, frequently re- 
peated during the summer, might prove both curative and pre- 
ventive, by killing the adult worms, which live free in the intes- 
tine. In dealing with a serious outbreak of this disease it should 
be remembered that infested flocks usually do fairly well during 
the summer and early fall months. If a flock is badly infested 
with nodule disease it will generally prove good management to 
nurse the flock through until spring, then depend on getting the 
sheep into shape for market during the summer and sell out for 
butcher stock in the early fall. Such sheep are entirely fit for food 
purposes when in good flesh. 

Prevention. — New sheep should be purchased from a flock 
that has been thrifty during two previous late winters and early 
springs, and they should be kept for two seasons on some other 
pasture than the one previously used on the infected farm. It will 
be better still if the flock can be kept part of the season on pasture 
and part of the seasons on plowed crops, e. g., rape, sorghum, 
field peas, or meadow land that has not recently been used for 
sheep pasture. The new flock must not be allowed to drink from 
any pond or sluggish stream that has received drainage from the 
infested pasture or barn yard. 

With a view to preventing this and other parasitic diseases, 
the flock should not be kept too long on one pasture, but should be 
moved from pasture to pasture ; and from pasture to stubble fields, 
cut-over meadow, rape, etc. Sluggish streams and ponds should 
be regarded with suspicion always. 

It is possible to practically rid a flock from this disease by 
following this course of shifting the flock about for several years, 
plowing up pastures occasionally and using plowed crops, but in 
most cases, with the exception of valuable sheep, particularly 
breeding flocks, it will usually be found more satisfactory to 
change the entire flock on the plan suggested. 



LECTURE XLIX. 
STOMACH WORM (Sheep). 

One of the especially common and serious parasitic diseases 
of sheep, and this means much, for the parasitic diseases of sheep 
are the serious ones. This disease is very widespread and almost 
universal. 

The parasite (Strongylus contortus) which causes this trouble 
is a small threadlike worm, perhaps an inch in length and so 
slender that they must be looked for carefully or one is liable to 
miss them. The individual worms are somewhat twisted and are 
found in the fourth stomach. Frequently they are in motion. If 
they are present in great numbers as is frequently the case, the 
portion of the stomach contents next to the mucous membrane 
may seem to be fairly alive. The worms vary in color from dirty 
white to reddish. 

Life history. — This is a permanent parasite, being present 
in the stomach at all times of the year. The eggs pass out with 
the feces and are afterwards taken in by other animals with the 
water or food, particularly when in pasture. 

Symptoms. — There are no diagnostic symptoms by which this 
disease can be distinguished from other internal parasitic diseases 
of sheep. There is a gradually developing weakness and unthrift. 
Lambs are affected more seriously than older sheep. These are 
unthrifty during the late summer, and some die during the late 
summer and fall. 

Treatment — The Bureau of Animal Industry has done some 
careful experimenting in this line, and recommends coal tar creo- 
sote as the most satisfactory treatment for this parasite. This 
medicine is not expensive and is very easily obtained and pre- 
pared. It is important to insist upon getting coal tar creosote, 
not beach wood creosote which is ordinarly dispensed, the coal 
tar creosote being cheaper and more satisfactory. It is given as 
a one per cent solution; that is, one ounce of the creosote to 99 
ounces of water, in doses proportioned to the age and size of the 



206 COMMON DISEASES. 

sheep. Lambs four months old take two to four ounces. Older 
sheep take three to five ounces. If there is any reason to suspect 
the presence of worms in the intestines, then thymol should be 
added to the creosote treatment. The dose of thymol is from 30 
to 100 grains. Each dose of thymol is to be added to the dose 
of creosote after the latter has been mixed, measured and should 
then be given immediately. Only the fresh crystalized thymol 
should be accepted. The affected animals should be kept from 
feed for 16 to 20 hours before medicinal treatment is given. 

Bluest one (copper sulphate) has been commonly accepted as 
one of the most satisfactory treatments for this trouble, but it 
needs to be given in carefully regulated doses. This medicine 
may be made up as follows: Dissolve one pound (avoirdupois) 
of fresh powdered bluestone in nine gallons of water. For this 
treatment the animal must be kept off feed from 20 to 24 hours. 
The dose for a lamb six months old is 40 c. c. ; sheep 12 months 
old, 60 c. c. (about two ounces) ; 18 months, 80 c. c. ; two years, 
90 c. c. 

Drenching sheep. — For giving medicine to sheep a drench- 
ing tube should be used or a large piston syringe, or a long necked 
bottle. A very satisfactory drenching tube may be easily made 
with an ordinary tin funnel which is inserted into one end of the 
rubber hose about three feet long and about one-half inch in di- 
ameter. A piece of brass or iron tubing four to six inches long 
is inserted into the other end of the tube. The metal tube is 
placed in the animal's mouth between the back teeth, the funnel 
end is held at a convenient height and medicine poured slowly into 
the funnel. In administering medicine for treating the stomach 
worms, it is better to give the. medicine with the sheep standing 
on its feet, because actual experiment has demonstrated that while 
the. animal is in this position, more of the medicine goes directly 
to the fourth stomach where it is needed. 

Prevention. — Sick animals must be removed from the flock 
and put in a pasture or yard from which there is no drainage to 
the pasture or yard used by the flock. Water must be taken 
from good wells that do not receive surface drainage. The tank 
or trough should be high enough above the ground level so that 
the water cannot possibly be contaminated from droppings. High 
and well drained pasture is always safer than low pastures, unless 



STOMACH WORMS. 207 

the latter are well drained. Infected pastures should be burned 
over thoroughly and regularly for the purpose of destroying eggs 
and young worms. It should be borne in mind that when animals 
are well fed and well nourished, they are better able to resist the 
invasion of any parasite. 



LECTURE L. 

FOOT ROT OF SHEEP. 

This is a very old and familiar disease. It is especially preva- 
lent on soft, wet pastures, but sometimes prevails under condi- 
tions of extreme drought. Some outbreaks are infectious. There 
are other cases which appear similar upon hasty examination, but 
are evidently not infectious. 




FIG. 75. FOOT ROT OF SHEEP. 

A plain case. 

General symptoms. — This disease usually affects the four 
feet and produces lameness, perhaps one fore foot at first, between 
and above the claws. There is a discharge, with very offensive 
odor, and the hoof itself becomes rotten in places. Loose pieces 
are detached and the sole may be affected the same way. The 
sensitive parts may be exposed in very severe cases, with a de- 
velopment of profuse granulations. The skin above and between 
the hoofs is red, tender and swollen. The animal is lame and 
of course unthrifty. The disease prevails more especially in late 
summer. 

Differential diagnosis. — It is necessary to distinguish between 
infectious foot rot and a quite different disease which we know 
as "foot and mouth disease." Foot rot begins in the skin between 
the claws, and perhaps soon involves the sole. It then spreads 



FOOT ROT. 209 

both as to surface and depth, involving the deeper structures of 
the foot. Foot and mouth disease begins in an inflammation of 
the skin just above the hoofs. This becomes red, then small vesi- 
cles develop which rupture and then dry. Foot rot is a disease 
especially of horn tissue. In foot and mouth disease the whole 
hoof may loosen at the crown, the inflammation involving espe- 
cially the skin at the crown and the sensitive parts under the wall 
and above the sole. In foot rot the horn is diseased and separates 
in pieces. Foot and mouth disease affects several feet and per- 
haps the mouth also — simultaneously. Foot rot usually affects 
one foot at first and there is little or no fever in common cases, 
whereas, in foot and mouth disease the fever is characteristic. 

Simple foot rot. — Causes: This is a disease of the horny 
parts, often due to overgrowth or injury, either one of which may 
result in a laminitis, and so result seriously for the foot. Similar 
conditions may account for the development of a considerable 
number of cases, but this disease does not spread from one animal 
to another as does the infectious type. Some cases are apparent- 
ly due to the chaffing action of rough, wet and coarse grasses be- 
tween the claws. This may be very serious in a few cases, but 
is not a disease of general importance. Moisture seems to bear 
an important relation to the development of this type of the disease. 

Treatment. —Clean thoroughly between the toes ; pare away 
all diseased horn and remove the loosened pieces. The hoof, if 
grown out of shape, must be trimmed to normal proportion. Ex- 
cessive granulations must be cut away or removed by actual 
cautery, and be repressed by astringent measures or pressure band- 
ages. Pledgets of tow may be dipped in tar and applied over 
the granulations so as to bring pressure at the right point. These 
patients should be kept upon clean, dry footing, and serious cases 
should be taken up and kept in the yard or in dry stable. For 
astringent dressing we may use tincture of iron, varying from 
full strength to one to four, dissolved in water. Four per cent 
•carbolized tar makes a nice application for cleansing and disin- 
fecting, and keeps out dirt. The medical treatment, particularly 
the astringent, should be very carefully applied, especially into the 
crevices and deeper recesses. 

Treating whole flock. — It is frequently advisable to treat a 
whole flock in a general way ; in that case the flock may be driven 
through a large pan containing a solution of copper sulphate about 



230 COMMON DISEASES. 

four inches deep ; the animals should be forced to remain in the 
pan for several minutes, so as to insure good treatment. This 
solution should be made up dissolved in water in the proportion 
of one to two pounds per gallon of water. 

Prevention. —Separate diseased animals from the healthy ones,, 
and bear in mind that either very wet or very dry pastures may be 
favorable to the development of this disease. Hoofs should be 
kept pared to reasonable proportions. Cases of foot rot should 
not be neglected in the earlier and simpler stages, for they are 
much easier treated then. They may be infectious and careful 
treatment and attention may avoid a general outbreak. 



LECTURE LI. 

VERMINOUS BRONCHITIS, NASAL GRUB, AND CATARRH. 
VERMINOUS BRONCHITIS. 

Definition. — A disease of the bronchial tubes and lungs, 
caused by minute round worms. The worms are similar in dif- 
ferent domestic animals, but each animal has its own species. 
There is therefore little danger of infection from one kind of do- 
mestic animals to another. 

Life history of the parasite. — Young sheep, young goats, 
cattle under two years of age, and young pigs are susceptible to 
this disease. The mature worms are found in the bronchial tubes 
as well as eggs and embryos. These may be coughed out and 
ultimately reach pools or small ponds of stagnant water. The 
larvae are usually swallowed with the food or drink and some of 
them ultimately reach the trachea probably by way of the larynx. 
It is possible that the eggs may be inhaled directly with particles 
of dust. Infection occurs mainly in the spring. The parasitism 
remains long dormant, slowly developing until fall. The disease 
seems to be especially common in wet years. Embryos and eggs 
are very resistant and the parasite is very tenacious of life at all 
stages. 

Symptoms. — At first there is a bronchial catarrh ; later a 
chronic anaemia, with progressive loss of flesh, and strength. 
There is a cough which at first is rather harsh, and later very 
weak. The cough is worse when animals are excited and when 
they move around. Sometimes small balls composed mainly of 
worms may be coughed out and actually seen. Respiration is dif- 
ficult and in some cases wheezing. Calves are able to resist rather 
longer than sheep. 

On examination post mortem there may be found masses 
of minute thread-like worms in the trachea and bronchial tubes, 
with considerable quantity of purulent and viscid liquid in the 



212 



COMMON DISEASES. 



tubes. Some lobules of the lungs may show very marked pneu- 
monia. There may also be tubercles resembling those of tubercu- 
losis, near the surface of the lungs, and also throughout the lung 
substance. 

Treatment. — For the present we must consider this as gen- 
erally unsatisfactory. Treatment by injection of medicines di- 
rectly into the trachea has been tried and recommended in some 
cases, but is very apt to prove unsatisfactory. In cases of 
valuable sheep the following is worth trial : 

Olive oil, ioo grams. 

Turpentine, ioo grams. 

Carbolic acid, 2 grams. 

Give ten grams per day for three days. Each dose is given 
by a large hypodermic syringe and injected directly through the 
side, into the trachea. 





FIG. 76. SHEEP GAD FLY (Oestrus ovis). 

Commonly called "grub." a, Adult; b, Larva; c, Puparium. 



Prevention. — Change pastures often ; keep sheep upon forage 
crops and upon frequently changed pastures. Avoid ponds and 
well water which receives drainage from pastures, feed lots or 
barn yards. 

NASAL GRUB (GRUB IN" THE HEAD). 

This is a very poor name for a disease, but is the only one 
commonly understood and is used here for that reason. 



VERMINOUS BRONCHITIS. 213 

Cause. — This disease is caused by a parasite which inhabits 
the various cavities of the head which communicate with the nasal 
chambers. 

Life history. —The mature fly resembles the well known bot 
fly of the horse ; is of a dirty yellow or grayish yellow color, and 
appears in the middle of the day from July to September. The 
young larvae are deposited about the nostrils of the sheep, from 
whence they crawl up into the various cavities of the head, in- 
cluding the horn cores, and may even reach the brain substance. 
They mature in about nine months. The developed grubs work 
out, escaping from the nose during the spring, from March to 
May. They then pass through another stage before the adult fly 
appears, which occurs in six or seven weeks from the time the 
grubs escape from the nose. 

Symptoms. —A nasal discharge appears during the spring. 
The sheep sneeze, shake their heads, and rub their noses and faces 
against their feet or other objects; sometimes there are attacks of 
vertigo and the walk may be unsteady or irregular; severe cases 
develop convulsions and die. On examination post mortem, grubs- 
are found in the various openings and chambers of the head and 
the mucous membrane lining these cavities is inflamed. 

Treatment. — Medical treatment under ordinary circumstan- 
ces is not practical, and prevention is very difficult to apply on 
a large scale. Before the sheep are turned out in the morning 
their noses may be smeared with tar or a mixture of tar. turpen- 
tine and fish oil. They may be forced to take their salt out of 
a large hole bored in a log or a plank, the tar being smeared around 
the edges of the hole so that when the sheep take their salt they 
get a little tar around the nose and mouth. 

CATARRH IN SHEEP. 

Cause. —Simple catarrh in sheep is usually due to cold rains, 
imperfect ventilation and damp quarters, or undue exposure after 
early shearing. In other words, simply a case of catching cold. 
Many cases of catarrh are due to parasitic invasion of the nasal 
chambers and head sinuses. However, these latter are not includ- 
ed under simple catarrh. This disease is not contagious, although 
many cases may appear simultaneously, due to common causes. 

Symptoms.'— The affected sheep are noticed to be sneezing,, 
with discharge from the nose and eyes, and sometimes coughing.. 



214 COMMON DISEASES. 

The nasal discharge is thin at first, gradually becoming thicker. 
Some cases become chronic, and especially when the subjects are 
weak and unthrifty. The inflammation of the nasal mucous mem- 
brane may then extend into the head sinuses, and cause extensive 
collections of pus, and also extend down the mucous membrane 
lining the trachea. 

Prevention. — First of all, abundant ventilation at all seasons. 
Sheep are very frequently housed too closely in winter. The in- 
terior of the building becomes very damp and the conditions in 
general are unwholesome. Healthy sheep do not need much pro- 
tection in the winter time, so far as warmth is concerned. If they 
are well protected from cold rains and snows, and from cold winds 
they are most thrifty with abundant ventilation. Sheep that are 
shorn early in the spring need careful management for a time in 
order to prevent their catching cold. 

Treatment. — The sick animals must have shelter. Their quar- 
ters must be dry, reasonably warm, and well ventilated. They 
must be well fed. The medicinal treatment should consist mainly 
of tonics, for instance : a simple, bitter vegetable tonic, like gentian 
root, which may be given in a powdered form in the feed two or 
three times daily ; about one dram per sheep. 



LECTURE LII. 

HOG CHOLERA, AND SWINE PLAGUE. 

Definition. — It is evident that there are at least three distinct 
diseases of swine which are commonly confused under the name 
of hog cholera. These are true hog cholera, swine plague, and 
swill-barrel cholera. Most of the outbreaks of infectious disease, 
under this name are mixed infections of hog cholera and swine 
plague. 

Very few typical cases of either swine plague or hog cholera 
alone are seen. 

It is undoubtedly possible to have an unmixed outbreak of 
either hog cholera or swine plague, although the existence of epi- 
demics of swine plague unmixed with hog cholera has not been 
clearly proven. Unmixed infection from hog cholera in which 
no swine plague lesions appear is probably more common. It is 
a matter of some importance for farmers and stockmen to know 
which disease they have to deal with, or whether there is mixed 
infection, for while these diseases are equally contagious, and 
equally fatal, the swine plague germs are much more easily de- 
stroyed, and this disease is much more easily controlled than is 
hog cholera. 

Variations in virulence.— Different outbreaks of so-called hog 
cholera vary greatly in virulence. In some epidemics the infec- 
tion is marked, and the hogs die quickly; in other epidemics the 
majority of the cases assume the chronic type; the hogs do not 
die so quickly, and the percentage of loss is not so great. 

Various gradations may appear between epidemics of the ut- 
most virulence and those of the milder type. 

Two factors are to be considered in explaining this variation. 
It has been shown that there are at least six varieties of the hog 
■cholera bacillus which differ somewhat in the virulence of the 
disease they produce, and that each one of these varieties, under 
uniform conditions, will produce a certain type of hog cholera. 



216 COMMON DISEASES. 

The other factor to be considered in explaining this varia- 
tion is in the differing conditions of food and care under which 
hogs are kept in different yards and different localities. Where 
the feeding and care has been such as to secure the best physi- 
cal strength and vitality, the hogs are naturally less susceptible, 
the disease does not assume the most virulent type, and the per- 
centage of mortality may not be so high as among hogs kept un- 
der less favorable conditions. 




FIG. 77. HOG CHOLERA— SWINE PLAGUE. (M. H. R.) 

Subcutaneous haemorrhages of swine plague, resembling those of haem- 
orrhagic septicaemia in cattle. Note the dark spots. 

Swill-barrel cholera. — The fact must not be lost sight of, in 
this connection, that frequent outbreaks of swine disease appear 
and alarm neighborhoods when the trouble is due to local causes. 
They are usually diseases of the digestive apparatus and due to 
errors in feeding. All the patients become diseased from the same 
source and in the same way but the disease does not spread. 
Several neighbors may make the same mistake at the same time 
and get similarly bad results. These are the cases which are 
called hog cholera and which yield to treatment. 

Early symptoms. — When these diseases appear the hair be- 
comes harsh and dry, the eyes may be watery, and locomotion 
becomes weak and irregular , with imperfect control of the hind 
legs. The skin around the flanks and fore legs may become pur- 
ple; the skin of the ears frequently becomes much inflamed, and 
if the hog lives for several days, may assume a scabby appearance. 
Sometimes the tips of the ears slough off. The sick hogs sepa- 
rate themselves from the rest of the herd, are disposed to hide in 
sheltered places, and seem but little inclined to move about. There 



HOG CHOLERA AND SWINE PLAGUE. 



217 



is usually a loss of appetite, although in some very acute cases the 
appetite may remain good until the end. The chronic cases lose 
flesh rapidly, and sometimes show extreme disturbance of the ner- 
vous system, exhibited in partial or complete paralysis of the 
hind parts, or extreme nervousness. Cough is usually short and 
hacking. Occasionally constipation appears among the earliest 
symptoms, but is usually not noticed by the owners ; later, diarrhea 
appears. In some of the very acute cases which appear at the 
beginning of an outbreak the animals die very suddenly; some- 
times before the owner realizes that they are sick. Later in the 
history of the disease, as it appears in a herd, the cases tend to 
assume a more chronic type. 

If the swine plague infec- 
tion is marked, the coughing and 
shortness of breath are the most 
prominent symptoms. If the case 
is more nearly typical hog chol- 
era, the bowel symptoms are 
more prominent. 

Sometimes quite large por- 
tions of skin and underlying 
muscular tissue die and slough 
off, leaving large sores. This ap- 
pears more commonly, perhaps, 
around the neck, head, and back 
than elsewhere. 
-In hog cholera the skin on ex- 
posed parts of the body where the hair is thin, like the flanks and 
inside of the fore legs and thighs, may be deep red or purple. 
Blood-stained spots may be usually found in the fatty tissue under 
the skin and on the internal organs. The lungs may show evi- 
dences of pneumonia. The lymphatic glands in the mesentery 
appear deeply congested. 

When the large intestine is split open, dark spots, more or 
less blood-stained, or even clots of blood, are to be seen upon the 
lining membrane when the disease has been of tbe very acute 
type. The more chronic cases show peculiar and very charac- 
teristic ulcers in the lining membrance of the large intestines, and 

Vet. Studies— 14. 




FIG. 78. HOG CHOLERA— SWINE 

PLAGUE. (M. H. R.) 

Haemorrhages (dark spots) on 
diaphragm. Haemorrhages are 
characteristic of swine plague. 

Hog cholera post mortem.— 



218 COMMON DISEASES. 

they are usually more numerous near the blind pouch. These ul- 
cers are irregular in outline, with yellowish or dark centers, and 
frequently appear as being raised above the surface. Small ulcers 
may also be seen in the back part of the mouth and in the throat. 

The spleen is frequently enlarged, and darker in color than 
natural. Small bright red spots are found on the surface or 
through the deeper structure of the kidneys. 

Swine plague post mortem. -In swine plague the lung le- 
sions are most prominent. The skin may show the same purple 
spots and areas as in hog cholera. The lungs show scattered and 
sharply defined areas, which are dark red in color, and solid, like 
liver. The lining membrane of the chest may be diseased ; but 
it is not uniformly so, and when this occurs, it usually follows dis- 
ease of the lung tissue. The bowels may show various stages and 
conditions of congestion, hemorrhage and inflammation, but not 
the typical ''button-ulcers" of hog cholera. Hog cholera is essen- 
tially an infectious disease of the bowels. 

The cause. — We must not forget that swine plague and hog 
cholera are both infectious diseases, and that each has its prime 
origin in a specific germ. Simple conditions of keep and feed 
have much to do with making the animals more susceptible, but 
mere matters of food and surroundings cannot serve as first cause 
of either hog cholera or swine plague. The predisposing factors 
in the causation of these diseases must be given due consideration, 
but the most important thing to remember is that both are due to 
specific germs, that they never appear without infection, and that 
they may be carried from one place to another. If the hog is fed 
exclusively on corn diet, or from a swill barrel that has been used 
for years and never scalded or allowed to dry in the sun ; if it is 
kept shut up in dark, damp, and perhaps filthy pens, it will not be 
able to resist any disease as would one kept under more favorable 
conditions. 

It is evident to all who have given the subject careful atten- 
tion that swine hygiene should receive far more attention in the 
future than it has had in the past, and that here there is a large 
field for scientific study. Good lungs and good digestion must 
be regarded as the pig's chief protection against disease. Good 
digestion aids in the destruction of bacteria in the food, while con- 
gestion or catarrhal inflammation of the mucous membrane of 
stomach may result in a smaller percentage of acid in the gastric 



HOG CHOLERA AND SWINE PLAGUE. 



219 



juice, and thus the germ-destroying power of this fluid would be 
diminished. Tissue vitality in the lungs must be regarded as a 
very important factor in increasing the disease-resisting power of 
the animal. The laws of hygiene cannot be neglected without 
rendering animals more susceptible to disease. 




FIG. 79. HOG CHOLERA. (M. H. R.) 

Large intestine, mucous membrane showing general distribution of typi- 
cal ulcers, i, Ileum; C, caecum or blind pouch. 

How scattered. — The germs of these diseases may be carried 
from place to place upon shoes, or by wagons, or by driving stock 
back and forth over an infected area ; or they may be scattered by 
driving or transporting infected hogs along the public highways. 
Dogs are common carriers of this disease. Running streams and 
shallow lakes are also serious factors in the spread of these disease 
germs. Bowel discharges are very important sources of infection, 
and if the yards or pens drain into streams or lakes, these become 
carriers of the infection. Hogs that have died of hog cholera are 
sometimes thrown into streams or buried in the sand near the 
edge of a stream or lake, thus infecting the water. 

Practical differences. — Hog cholera germs mav live three 
months, and possibly longer under favorable conditions. They 
are hardy and difficult to destroy. Swine plague germs live but 
a short time, perhaps two or three weeks under favorable con- 



220 COMMON DISEASES. 

ditions. Thus it will be seen that an outbreak of hog cholera, or 
of mixed infection, is more difficult to control and more serious 
in every way than is an outbreak of swine plague, because the 
germs will linger for a longer time in the soil and various hiding 
places. These two diseases spread with equal rapidity, are dissem- 
inated by the same conditions and in the same way, and so far as 
known, are equally fatal. 

When an outbreak appears. — In case there is a suspicious 
disease among hogs in a neighborhood, the matter should be re- 
ported promptly to health officers, and this first outbreak should be 
rigidly quarantined. 

But one man should have the care of a herd of healthy hogs, 
and this man should not be allowed to go where there is a possi- 
bility of getting the infection. Neither the owner nor any mem- 
ber of his family should go to any farm where an infectious swine 
disease has appeared ; nor should anyone from the farm where 
such sickness is present be allowed to walk about the yards of his 
neighbors. 

Dogs and other dangerous visitors should be kept away from 
the pens on uninfected farms by a temporary fence of woven wire. 

Before a herd becomes infected, it may be very desirable to 
divide it into three or four parts, and separate these groups widely 
on different portions of the farm. The owner may then lose one 
group, or even two groups, and still save the others, should the 
disease come his way. 

If hog cholera appears in a herd during the summer or fall 
when the weather is pleasant, it is desirable to turn the hogs out 
into a large yard or field rather than to keep them closely confined 
in pens or stables, where the danger from infection is greatly in- 
creased. Larger or smaller doses of infection have much to do 
with determining the fatality of the disease. If hogs are allowed 
to run in yards or fields, each hog is exposed to the smallest pos- 
sible amount of infection. With a herd so treated, the disease 
may reasonably be expected to spread less rapidly, and to be some- 
what less fatal. Hogs should not be allowed access to small ponds 
or mud holes during the prevalence of any suspicious disease 
among them. Such ponds and mud holes become deadly centers 
of infection. 

If the weather is cool or wet, the herd should be given quar- 
ters as warm and dry as possible, for with hogs turned out to shift 



HOG CHOLERA AND SWINE PLAGUE. 221 

for themselves, under such conditions of exposure, the mortality 
is apt to be very high. 

It is apparently useless to spend money on medicines in the 
treatment of either of these diseases. Before giving credit to pat- 
ent medicines, one should bear in mind that outbreaks often check 
suddenly without any treatment. 

Experience demonstrates that it is desirable to separate the 
well from the sick animals promptly, and to place the well in un- 
infected sheds, pens or yards. It is also desirable to keep both 
the pens where the sick and the healthy hogs are confined, thor- 
oughly cleaned and disinfected. For this purpose, unslaked lime 
is quite satisfactory, and it is easily applied. 

The manure should be kept in compact piles outside of the 
pens, and disinfected layer by layer with lime, or corrosive sub- 
limate dissolved in water, in the proportion of 7.5 grains to the 
pint. Lime should also be scattered freely over the floor of the 
pens. 

Common mistakes. — It is a mistake to bury hogs that have 
died of hog cholera or swine plague when the carcasses can be 
burned, for burning is by far the most efficient means of destroy- 
ing the germs of these diseases. If it is not convenient to burn 
the carcasses, they should be buried under at least four feet of 
earth. 

It is a mistake, and frequently a serious one, for a farmer to 
ship in a lot of strange hogs from unknown stockyards, in cars 
that may have been infected, to his own farm, and to put these 
with stock hogs already on hand. The mere fact that the hogs 
came from an uninfected district is no argument to the contrary, 
for the car in which they were shipped may have recently carried 
a lot of hog cholera victims. Strange hogs should be quarantined 
for three weeks before putting them with hogs already on 
the place. This gives time for the disease to appear in case the 
new hogs have come from infected herds, or through infected 
stockyards, or in infected cars. 

It is a mistake to visit your neighbor's hog pens, and walk 
about among the hogs out of mere curiosity, when your neighbor 
has told you that some peculiar sickness has appeared in his herd. 

It is a mistake to allow the last one or two sick hogs, which 
usually show a very chronic type of the disease, to linger for 



222 COMMON DISEASES. 

months on the farm. It is a better policy to kill such hogs prompt- 
ly, and have done with the disease. They do not usually become 
thrifty and profitable feeders for a long time after recovery. 
On the other hand, they may remain infectious to the last period 
of their sickness, thus keeping the yards and pens infected and 
furnishing a constant supply of infectious material for fresh out- 
breaks ; whereas, if they had been killed, the infectious material 
could soon have been destroyed. 




FIG. 80. HOG CHOLERA. (M. H. R.) 
Ulcers in mucous membrane of large colon. Bowel split open. View of 
the interior. 



It is a criminal mistake to throw carcasses into any stream, 
lake, or pond, or to bury them near such body of water. 

Suggestion. — In dealing with infectious diseases of swine, 
there are practically but two things to be done, viz., quarantine 
and disinfect. It is a very simple matter to quarantine an out- 
break of hog cholera when it first appears, and it is extremely diffi- 
cult to quarantine the disease after it has been scattered over sev- 
eral townships. Quarantine must be rigid to be useful. Partial 
or imperfect quarantine is worse than useless. 

Disinfection. — If the disease is swine plague, nature will dis- 
infect in two or three weeks. If the disease be genuine hog chol- 
era, it is not easily controlled, for the germs may live three and 
perhaps four months, under favorable conditions, in the soil and 
about the buildings. Sometimes the cheapest way to disinfect is 
to burn the old sheds and pens where the hogs have been confined. 
But if these structures are valuable, the matter of other means of 
disinfection is to be considered. In this case, corrosive sublimate, 
dissolved in water in the proportion of 7.5 grains to each pint is 
a good disinfectant ; or whitewash that is made by using water 



HOG CHOLERA AND SWINE PLAGUE. 223 

that contains four per cent of pure carbolic acid, may be used in- 
stead of the corrosive sublimate solution. All bedding and loose 
stuff should be burned. The ground may be disinfected by satu- 
rating the surface with corrosive sublimate solution, or by burning 
off straw that has been scattered over the surface, or the danger 
from infection may be lessened by plowing the infected area. 
Sometimes it is more desirable to destroy the floors of pens than 
to attempt to disinfect them, but if it is thought desirable to dis- 
infect, they should be thoroughly saturated with the i :iooo cor- 
rosive sublimate solution, or boiling water. 



LECTURE LIII. 
COMMON DISEASES OF SWINE. 

RHEUMATISM. 

This disease is rather common in swine and affects either the 
muscles or joints. 

Cause. — Frequently due to cold damp quarters, and yet 
cases of rheumatism appear under the most favorable conditions. 
It is not thought best to discuss the physiological chemistry in- 
volved, in view of the uncertainty which still exists. 

Symptoms. — Affected animals are lame and sore. The exact 
symptoms depend of course upon the location. Very frequently 
the ankle joints are swollen and very tender. There is a rise of 
temperature in the acute cases. Food is refused and movements 
are very painful. This disease in swine, as in other animals, ex- 
hibits a tendency to move about from one limb or from one joint 
to another. 

Treatment. — Physic freely; two ounces Epsom salts or two 
ounces castor oil, or two compound cathartic pills, then 15 drops 
oil of Gaultheria in one-half ounce of bland oil, like linseed oil 
or sweet oil, together with potassium iodide in ten grain doses 
three times a day, given either in water or feed. For local stimu- 
lant over the joints, apply the following liniment: 8 oz. tincture 
belladona ; 1 oz. tincture opium ; and 1 oz. fluid extract aconite. 
This treatment should be applied freely on flannel cloths rung 
out of hot water dry as possible. For swollen joints that are not 
especially painful a blister gives more satisfactory results. 

POSTERIOR PARALYSIS. 

This is a rather common and serious disease affecting espe- 
cially older swine and involving the hind quarters. In most cases 
it is probably a disorder of either the spinal cord or the spinal 
nerves. The exact pathology has not been demonstrated. 



COMMON DISEASES OF SWINE. 225 

Causes. — The direct cause of those cases which depend upon 
organic diseases of the cord or spinal nerves is not known. A 
more common type develops suddenly in old and heavy swine, 
particularly those in high flesh and is due to simple constipation. 

Symptoms. ■ — Some cases develop suddenly ; others develop 
gradually during several days and even weeks. There is inabil- 
ity to use the hind limbs which are limp and weak, not unlike af- 
fected limbs of horses having azoturia. Hogs affected with this 
disease usually retain good appetite and are lively aside from the 
posterior paralysis. They are apparently in good health for weeks, 
having perfect control of the front limbs. If they move at all 
the hind limbs are simply dragged. This trouble is easily dis- 
tinguished from rheumatism in most cases by absence of pain. 

Treatment. — A decided physic, 10 to 20 grains of calomel 
in a small piece of pork ; or 2 oz. castor oil with 2 drops of croton 
oil, well mixed. If the case is persistent and the animal valuable 
then potassium iodide should be given in ten grain doses three 
times a day, either as a drench or in the drink. Turpentine should 
be applied over the loins until the skin becomes sore. 

CONGESTION OF THE LUNGS. 

This is a rather common affliction and very apt to be fatal. 
It is simply an engorgement of the pulmonary blood vessels (hy- 
peraemia) . 

Cause. — Active exercise of swine in high flesh. 

Symptoms. — These cases are usually acute and apt to end 
fatally. The symptoms are those of- suffocation. There is marked 
distress ; respiration is very rapid, even the mouth being held open 
in an effort to get air. The pulse is very rapid and weak and the 
animal is apt to fall suddenly. 

On examination postmortem the pulmonary vessels are en- 
gorged and the lungs are dark. There is no definite exudate 
which distingushes this from pneumonia, pneumonia being an in- 
flammation of the lung tissues. 

Treatment. — Stimulant : Use aromatic spirits ammonia 1 
dram ; alcohol 4 drams, in water repeated at short intervals ; for 
example, 15 minutes to one-half hour. The animal must be kept 
warm and the extremities rubbed vigorously. 



226 COMMON DISEASES. 

QUINSY. 

Symptoms. — There is a marked sore throat. The neck is 
swollen back of and beneath the lower jaw. There is difficult 
respiration. Prognosis is usually favorable. 

Treatment. — Hot fomentations around the swollen neck and 
the following prescription may be given internally. Fluid extract 
belladonna 4 drops : chlorate of potash 10 grains, three times a 
day in 2 oz. water. 

SUGGESTIONS. 

Drenching swine. —Put a piece of rubber hose on the neck 
of bottle, give medicine slowly and cautiously, and if possible when 
the animal is not squealing. The animal may either be thrown 
down and held, or tied, or a loop may be passed around the upper 
jaw back of the front teeth and held by a turn around a post ; but 
in this case, medicines must be given with great care. 

Black teeth. -Black teeth in young pigs is not a matter of se- 
rious importance, so far as the teeth are concerned. 



LECTURE LIV. 
OBSTETRICS. 

The science which deals with the birth of young animals. 

Anatomy. — The female organs studied in obstetrics are : ova- 
ries, Fallopian tubes, vagina, and uterus. 

Ovaries. — Two more or less flattened, spherical organs, sus- 
pended in the front part of the broad ligament (see uterus) in 
the sub-lumbar region. In the cow and mare they are about the 
size of hulled walnuts. Their function is to develop, mature and 
discharge the ovules or eggs. 

Fallopian tubes. — Two small slender tubes which connect the 
ovaries, one on each side, with the horns of the uterus. Ovules- 
or eggs pass through these tubes on their way to the uterus. 

Uterus (womb). — A muscular and membranous sack, very 
large in pregnant animals — located partly in the pelvic and partly 
in the abdominal cavities. 

Structure. — Three layers or coats, (a) outer or peritoneal; 
(b) middle, muscular ; (c) inner, mucous. 

The outer (a) is the thin, delicate, glistening membrane, peri- 
toneum, which lines the entire abdominal cavity and covers with 
another layer, every organ within that cavity. 

The middle (b) is composed of two distinct sets of muscle 
fibers. The outer fibers extend lengthwise, and the inner ones 
around the uterus. 

The inner (c) is a mucous membrane and very similar to that 
which lines the mouth and whole alimentary canal. 

Shape. — The body of the uterus is cylinderical and divides in 
front into two branches. Each branch connects with a Fallopian 
tube and through that with the ovary. The body of the uterus 
narrows behind to a neck which projects into the vagina. The 
rectum is above the uterus and the bladder below it. 

Supports. — The uterus is held in place by four ligaments 
which are mainly folds of the peritoneum. The most important 
of these are the broad ligaments. These are two wide folds of 



228 OBSTETRICS. 

the peritoneum which extend the whole length of the body and 
horns, one on each side. They attach in the sub-lumbar region 
above, and to the sides of the uterus below. A third ligament at- 
taches above to the rectum, and a fourth below to the floor of the 
pelvis. 

Openings. — Three : one behind into the vagina ; two in front 
for the Fallopian tubes. 

Function. — The function of the uterus is to receive and ma- 
ture the ovum after it has been fertilized. The ovum attaches 
to the uterine wall ; a covering and supporting membrane is de- 
veloped around it; and there the foetus develops, receiving a rich 
supply of oxygen and food materials from the maternal uterine 
walls, through the surrounding membranes by osmosis. 




FIG. 81. GENERATIVE ORGANS OF THE MARE. 
1, Ovaries; 2, Fallopian tubes; 6, horn of uterus intact; 7, horn of uterus 
laid open; 8, body of uterus; 9, broad ligament; 10, cervix or neck of the 
uterus; 13, outlet of the urethra. 

Vagina. — This is a membranous tube which contains much 
muscular tissue in its walls. 

Structure. — Three coats, (a) outer of loose connective tissue; 
(b) middle, muscular; (c) inner, mucous. 

Location. — In the pelvis between the rectum above and the 
floor of the pelvis below. It is capable of great dilation to allow 
the passage of the young at birth. Between the uterus and vagina 
the connection or common opening is through the neck, at which 
point the uterus narrows greatly and is composed of firmer tissue. 
As the time for delivery approaches, this narrow canal dilates until 
the opening is large enough for the young animal to pass through. 



ANATOMY AND PREGNANCY. 229 

Normal period of gestation. —This varies from two years in 
the elephant to 28 days in the rabbit. The cow carries young 283 
days; mare 345 days; sow 119 days; ewe 149 days. All these 
may vary greatly. Old animals usually carry longer than young. 

ACCIDENTS OF PREGNANCY. 

Most important.- — (a) Abortion; (b) retention of the foetus; 
(c) volvulous (twist in the neck of the uterus). 




FIG. 82. BOVINE FOETUS AND FOETAL MEMBRANES AT MID-TERM. 
Uterus opened on the right side, exposing foetus and membranes. Note 
the small, light-colored bodies (cotyledons) which connect uterus and mem- 
branes. See also Fig. S3. A, uterus; B, cervix (neck of uterus). 

(a) Abortion. — For the purpose of this lecture, abortion 
may be defined as any premature birth. 

They are either (1) sporadic, or (2) infectious. 

( 1 ) Sporadic abortions may be due to a great variety of con- 
ditions ; e. g., sudden change in the weather and exposure to cold; 
strong medicines, especially purgatives; mechanical injuries; sud- 
den and unaccustomed exercise ; extreme nervous excitement ; dis- 
eases accompanied by cough or severe pain or high fever ; ergot, 
smut, etc., on the food; water containing sewage; disease of the 
aterus ; lack of constitutional vigor in either sire or dam. 

(2) Infectious abortion is probably due to a distinct conta- 
gium ; i. e., to the action of living germs upon the uterus and pla- 
cental membranes. Certain conditions of the atmosphere, diet, 
and vitality may favor the outbreak. 



230 OBSTETRICS. 

This type of the abortion does not spread rapidly through a 
herd, but the cases come at intervals throughout the season of preg- 
nancy until a large percentage of the herd has aborted. 

Preventive treatment. — The uterus can frequently be quieted 
and a threatened abortion prevented by the early administration 
of tincture of opium and f . e. viburnum given as follows : 

Cow or mare. Sheep. 

Tine, opium 2 oz. 2 drams 

F. e. viburnum prunif olium 3 oz. 3 drams 

Syrup 10 oz. 2 oz. 

Repeat every two hours until labor pains cease or the abor- 
tion occurs. 

Prevention. — When a case of abortion occurs in any herd or 
flock, begin a search for the cause. If this cause continues in 
'operation, a large number of animals may be affected. The animal 
that has already aborted should be removed at once from the shed 
or stable where the others are confined. All foetal membranes 
and discharges from the vagina must be burned or buried, and the 
stall where the abortion occurred should be disinfected with 5% 
crude carbolic acid. If possible a special attendant should take 
care of animals that have aborted. Animals which have aborted 
should not be placed with the others again until 15 days after dis- 
charge from vagina has ceased. 

Symptoms of approaching abortion are frequently meager 
and rarely very plain. Sometimes there is a discharge from the 
vagina. This organ is swollen and the mucous membrane may 
be deeply congested. Slight labor pains sometimes appear sev- 
eral hours before the foetus is expelled and before the sac is rup- 
tured. Occasionally the animal may be noticed moving around 
uneasily. 

Result of abortion. — In the infectious type more frequently 
than in the other, the membranes are retained and slow blood pois- 
oning ensues. Garget may appear which seems to be associated 
with the condition of the uterus. The appetite is impaired or lost. 
The patient loses flesh and gets very weak and thin and may come 
in heat frequently, but does not become pregnant again for a long 
time. 



LECTURE LV. 

OBSTETRICS. 

ACCIDENTS OF PREGNANCY. 

(b) Retention of the foetus. —This trouble is most common 
in cows. Period may vary from normal up to five years. Foetus 
may be alive m the cow for at least a year from pregnancy. It 
may be dead and mumified or it may decompose. 

Symptoms, — The mother may show labor pains at normal 
time and all other symptoms of parturition may be present. The 
symptoms disappear and the cow goes on as if non-pregnant, but 
does not usually come in heat. 

Causes.— Partial paralysis of the uterus ; excessive adhesions 
between foetus and uterus ; deformed pelvis ; torsion of uterus, etc. 
Treatment.— At normal period of delivery dilate the neck of 
the uterus with the aid of belladonna ointment and gentle me- 
chanical force, and deliver. If the cow has gone safely past this 
period then fatten and sell for beef. 

(c) Volvulous (or twist).— A twist sometimes occurs in the 
neck of the uterus and makes delivery exceedingly difficult. 

It is much more common in the cow than in the mare, and 
usually occurs near the termination of pregnancy. 

Cause.— It may be caused by the patient slipping or falling, 
and especially if she rolls over late in the period of pregnancy. 
Some authors think it may be due to active and unusual move- 
ments of the foetus. It can only be diagnosed positively by ex- 
amination with the hand and finding the twist in the neck of the 
uterus. 

Treatment.— -If the twist is slight, the operator may be able 
to reduce it by introducing the hand into the uterus and grasping 
some portion of the foetus and causing the uterus to unwind, by 
a strong twisting motion. Sometimes it is necessary to throw the 
cow ormare, then introduce the hand, grasp firmly one or more 
limbs of the foetus and have the cow rolled in the opposite direc- 



232 



COMMON DISEASES. 



tion from the twist, holding firmly to the foetus meanwhile. If 
the operator can succeed in getting his hand into the uterus, and 
especially if he can get one or more foetal limbs through the neck 
of the uterus, the twist may usually be reduced. Some of these 
cases, however, are exceedingly difficult to handle. 



ACCIDENTS OF PARTURITION". 

The most common are: (a) germ infection; (b) inversion 
of the uterus; (c) tear in the vagina; (d) retention of foetal 
membranes ; (e) haemorrhage. 

(a) Germ infection may cause blood poisoning. When in- 
troducing the hand or any other foreign body, be sure that it has 
not recently touched what is dead or putrefying. 

(b) Inversion of the uterus. —Most common in the cow — 
may be partial or complete. There may also be partial eversion. 
of the bladder, and vagina. 

Causes. — May be excess- 
ive force used in aiding de- 
livery, or failure of the 
uterus to contract after de- 
livery. 

Treat in cut. — Thoroughly 
cleanse the protruding 
uterus with hot water and 
invert over the hand and 
arm. Be careful to smooth 
out each fold and leave the 
uterus in a natural position. 
If the uterus is greatly 
swollen and heavy, bathe in 
cold astringent solutions,, 
like strong alum water, until the size is sufficiently reduced 
to permit replacement. A common washtub is very convenient 
for bathing the soiled and swollen uterus. 

Bandaging very firmly with a wide roller of muslin forces out 
much of the blood, reduces the bulk, and allows handling of the 
uterus without injury. The bandage should be wide, and rolled 
from each end. 

To put on the bandage, begin with the middle of the bandage 





§p 




^fliSllBII^H 






A"-^^^ 

%$£;&$ 




B 








is 

H 




US 




m 




■jH^SsoSn^Sx if {a^H 






'^2-^a 


ggSS^s*"*^*' ,?:^Bl 



FIG. 83. BOVINE COTYLEDONS. 

A, Pedicle of uterine cotyledon; B, 
uterine cotyledon; D, foetal cotyledon; 
foetal membrane. 



ACCIDENTS OF PARTURITION. 233 

ai the end of the uterus and carry the ends around in opposite di- 
rections, pulling firmly all the time so as to force the blood back 
into the general circulation. After replacing, it is sometimes ad- 
visable to pack the uterus with cotton and close the outlet by 
means of sutures through the vulva. 

Finally give the cow three ounces tincture of opium and 2 
ounces bromide of potassium in ]/?. pint of syrup. Give mare 
two-thirds of this dose and the ewe one-eighth. Repeat in three 
hours if the animal is still straining. If necessary apply rope truss 
as shown in class room. 

(c) Tear in vagina. — Vagina may be torn above or below 
by excessive size of the foetus ; faulty position of the foetus or by 
excessive force used in delivery. This calls for immediate oper- 
ation by a veterinarian, in case of a mare, — not so important for a 
cow. 

(d) Retention of the afterbirth. — Most common in cows, 
less serious for cows than for mares. 

Cause. — Unusual adhesion between uterus and placenta or 
very rapid contraction of the uterus after delivery. 

Treatment. — For the mare the placenta should be removed 
within twelve hours if it fails to come away naturally ; for the cow 
it is better to wait for 18 to 72 hours if the cow seems well. 

Twist the membranes that appear on the outside into a tight 
rope, then introduce an oiled hand into the uterus and gently 
separate the placenta from the uterus at the cotyledons, pulling 
with the other hand outside. 

(e) Haemorrhage. — This is rare in the lower animals. It 
is denoted by rapidly increasing paleness around the eyes and in 
the mouth and by quick feeble pulse. Blood may not appear on the 
outside and yet the bleeding be extensive. Give 3 oz. f. e. ergot 
at once, in 4 oz. syrup, and then give 1 oz. in 2 oz. syrup every 
hour if necessary up to a limit of six doses, and meantime pour- 
ice water over the back and loins. 

Vet. Studies— 15. 



LECTURE LVI. 
OBSTETRICS— DIFFICULT PARTURITION. 

Nature's plan. — When the delivery occurs according to na- 
ture's evident plan, the ligaments of the pelvis relax; the water 
bag appears through the neck of the uterus and finally outside 
the vagina ; the neck and vagina gradually dilate to accommodate 
the foetus, which presents first the apex of a wedge or cone. 

Normal presentations. — We recognize two normal presenta- 
tions, viz., the anterior in which the two front feet and the nose 
present, with the foetus resting upon its sternum, and the poste- 
rior in which the two hind legs and tail present, with the foetus 
resting the sterum. 

Variations from these produce more or less difficulty in de- 
livery according as the presentation differs more or less from the 
normal. 

The cause of difficulty may lie with either the mother or 
foetus, more commonly with the latter. 

If the fault lies with the mother, it is usually because of pre- 
mature delivery ; of extreme narrowness and closeness of the 
pelvic outlet; volvulus; deformities of the pelvis (sometimes frac- 
ture) ; tumors within the pelvis; induration or hardening of the 
uterine neck. Sometimes there is complete closure, and some- 
times the trouble is due to excessive accumulations of fat within 
the pelvis. 

If the fault lies with the foetus, it is because of faulty pre- 
sentations, excessive size, monstrosities or deformities of the 
foetus. 

Common faulty presentations. ■ — Faulty anterior may be: 
head, or head and neck doubled back; two feet, or feet and legs 
back ; the neck and one front limb ; or the neck and both front 
limbs back. 

Faulty posterior presentation may be: one limb back and 
doubled at the hock or stifle ; both limbs back with one flexed at 



DIFFICULT PARTURITION. 235 

each of these points, or both flexed at the same joint, which maj 
be either hock or stifle. 

ASSISTANCE. 

What may be needed. ■ — Plenty of bland oil, e. g., linseed, 
two small window cords with smooth loops in one end of each to 
loop around limbs ; one similar rope with short sharp hook in end 
to hook in under jaw, or eye socket; a pair of small combination 
pulleys, an embryotomy knife, large trocar and canula, some anti- 
septic, e. g., creolin to be used in 4% solution for hands, instru- 
ments and ropes. 

Suggestions. — Do not interfere until the water bag has rup- 
tured spontaneously unless labor pains have continued for several 
hours and water bag does not appear. If the v/ater bag ruptures, 
in a natural way, and the head for example should present without 
the feet, or the head and one foot, or if one hind foot presents 
and not the other, or any evidently faulty presentation occurs, then 
it is time to examine and plan for assistance. 

The first thing is to oil the arm and examine carefully to 
learn the cause of trouble and position of foetus. Then decide 
what you will do and how. If the condition is such that the de- 
livery will probably be long and tedious, with the patient strain- 
ing violently, it may be desirable to abate the labor pains with 
tincture of opium. Otherwise it will be much better and labor 
over sooner if the opium be not given. The rectum should also 
be examined as the hand goes into the vagina, and if distended 
should also be emptied. 

The patient should stand or lie with head down hill. It is 
always much easier to operate with the patient standing. Be pa- 
tient and not in too great a hurry, and make up your mind that 
you will succeed be it ever so difficult. When missing members 
are secured and ready to pull, pour plenty of oil, or in the absence 
of oil warm water into the uterus, by means of a funnel and rubber 
tubing. The parts that will offer friction are probably dry by this 
time and should be freely oiled or moistened. 

It is frequently necessary to shove the foetus forward into the 
uterus in order to secure and straighten some missing parts, and 
for this purpose a smooth broom handle with a short brad in one 
end will do fairly well ; but the hand of the operator must be 
guarding it, for fear it will slip and tear the mother. This is an 



236 



OBSTETRICS. 







\y 



FIG. 84. PRESENTATIONS. (B A I ) 
A and B, Normal; C, D, E, F, common abnormal presen 



tations. 



DIFFICULT PARTURITION. 237 

accident that must be carefully guarded against on account of 
probable blood poisoning. 

When one part presents, and others are to be secured or when 
one has been secured and it is desirable to return it into the uterus 
to secure another part, always make sure of the progress gained 
by attaching one of the ropes to the part secured. If the patient 
cannot be made to stand, always have her on the side opposite the 
missing part which thus comes on top. Work between labor pains, 
and when all is clear and ready to pull, the assistance should be 
given moderately and while the mother is straining. 

Dropsies. — Sometimes the retarded delivery is due to large 
accumulations of fluid in the brain cavity (hydrocephalus) of the 
foetus, or within the abdominal cavity (ascites) or to a general 
accumulation of fluids beneath the skin in the connective tissue 
and also in the abdominal cavity (general dropsy). In these 
cases the difficulty may be overcome by removing the fluid by 
tapping the brain and squeezing the soft bones together, or tap- 
ping the abdominal cavity and allowing the fluid to escape from 
these. A large trocar is very convenient for this operation. 

Gaseous distention. — The difficulty may be due to an ex- 
cessive accumulation of gases within the body of a dead and de- 
caying foetus and the obvious treatment is to tap with trocar or 
knife and allow gas to escape. 

Embryotomy. — If it becomes necessary to open the foetal 
body or remove one or more of the foetal limbs, the operator must 
observe certain general precautions. 

Beware of injuring the maternal parts ; be patient and don't 
be in a hurry. 

In case of twins with both presenting at the same time, try 
to force one back into the uterus and deliver one at a time before 
attempting dissection which is usually very tedious and very ex- 
hausting to the operator and mother, as well. 

Always save the skin and leave plenty to cover the bones and 
rough parts of the foetus, and to pull on. 

Removing a fore limb. — Take the one that is presenting, draw 
out, as far as possible, cut around the ankle, and then cut the skin 
on the inside of the limb up to the body and dissect the skin loose 
from the limb, largely by fingers. Then cut the muscles between 
the limb and the sterum. By twisting and pulling at the same 
time the limb can then be removed entire, leaving the skin attached 



238 OBSTETRICS. 

to the shoulder. Do the dissecting with one hand, while the other 
pulls on the skin outside. The reasons for not removing the skin 
are plain. The soft parts are easily cut and torn when skin is 
off. The skin gives a strong object to pull by and protects the 
parts of the mother from bones. It also keeps the soft parts of 
the foetus from rolling up when pressed against the parts of the 
mother; and finally a dissection is more easily made under than 
outside the skin. 

Removing the head. — Bring head outside vulva if possible, 
then cut the skin around the neck, back of the ears and dissect 
the skin loose from the muscles by the hand or by a thin spud, 
using the knife to cut the connective tissue bands that interfere, 
as far as the operator can reach. Then cut the cord on top of 
the neck that supports the head, and also the muscles around the 
vertebrae. Strong pulling and twisting on the head will usually 
bring away the head and neck, leaving a quantity of skin to cover 
remaining vertabrae and to assist in pulling. 

Removal of the hind limbs. — This is done on the same general 
principle. Incision around the ankle, thence up on the inside of 
the limb to the articulation between the femur and the pelvis. 
Cut across this joint on the inside, in order to sever the ligament 
which holds the femur strongly to the pelvis. Then by strong 
pulling and twisting the limb can be torn loose at this joint. 

It is rarely necessary to remove both hind legs. With one 
out of the way the other can usually be straightened or the body 
of the foetus removed with the other straightened forward into 
the uterus. 

Caesarian section. —Removal of the foetus through the flank 
or median line of the belly is done sometimes, but only as a last 
resort, more commonly and successfully done with cows and sows 
than mares. This should only be attempted by a medical expert 
unless the plan is to save only the foetus. In the latter case the 
work must be done rapidly. 



LECTURE LVII. 
COMMON MEDICINES. 

Common measurements. 

Teaspoon holds about i dram (/ 8 oz.). 
Tablespoon holds about 4 drams (>4 oz.). 
Dessert spoon holds about 2 drams. 
Tea cup holds about 5 oz. 

Giving medicines. — Medicines may be given to domestic ani- 
mals in the form of liquid drench, ball, in dry powder, or mixed 
with honey and molasss and smeared on the tongue. In giving 
a drench remember that a horse's mouth and throat are much more 
sensitive and more easily burned or irritated than the human. 
Taste of the medicine before giving if there is doubt about its be- 
ing too strong. Powders should be finely pulverized and must 
not be caustic or irritating. Balls should be in the shape of a 
cylinder about 2 inches long and ]/ 2 to % of an inch in diameter. 
They should be wrapped in thin paper and oiled. They must be 
reasonably soft and pliable and the horse should be offered a 
swallow of water immediately after giving. 

Drenching.— In giving a drench the patient's head must not 
be held too high,, the face should be nearly horizontal, with the 
nose just a little higher. The operator must not be in a hurry. 
The medicine should be poured on top of the tongue and as far 
back in the mouth as possible. If the horse is obstinate about 
swallowing, pour a tablespoonful of water into the nose after 
each time medicine is poured into the mouth. Medicines should 
never be given through the nose because of danger of choking. 
For supporting the head to give a drench, a rope may be tied 
to the nose band of halter and thrown over the beam— never 
tied but held by an assistant. Better still a cloth loop may 
be passed around the upper jaw back of the front teeth and 
through the nose band of the halter in such way that it cannot 
slip off. This cloth loop is fastened to the overhead rope. Med- 



240 



COMMON MEDICINES. 



icines may be given when the patient is lying down, but the 
operator must be careful not to pour out any medicine when the 
patient is about to struggle — danger of choking. Take plenty 
of time. 



MEDICINES. 

Aloes. —Cathartic, laxative or bitter tonic, depending upon 
the dose given. It is very reliable and 
satisfactory for horses, less so for ru- 
minants. Very soluble in alcohol and 
boiling water, imperfectly so in cold 
water. Usually requires 15 to 20 hours 
for operation. It is often desirable 
to combine it with one-eighth to one- 
quarter its weight of ginger and 
should be given in conjunction with 
nux vomica in case the bowels are 
torpid. Large rectal injections of 
warm water may be given until the 
physic acts. 

Doses. — Cattle, 1 to 2 oz. ; horses, 
2 to 8 drams; sheep, 4 to 8 drams; 
hogs, 2 to 4 drams. 

These doses may be administered 
with ginger in a ball with lard or mo- 
lasses, or given in water or syrup as a 
drench. 
Alcohol. — Diffusive stimulant, diuretic, reduces fever, anti- 
spasmodic and diaphoretic. Large doses are strongly narcotic. 
Medicinal doses check spasmodic conditions of involuntary muscle 
fibres, stimulate the heart and lungs, equalize circulation and 
overcome extreme depression. Soluble in all proportions in 
water, should be diluted at least four times for internal use. 

Doses. — Cattle, 2 to 4 oz. ; horses, 1 to 2 oz. ; sheep, T / 2 oz. ; 
hogs, yi to y 2 oz. Given in solution and diluted as above. 

Boracic acid. — Non-irritating antiseptic, non-volatile. It is 
mainly used externally either in solution (about 3 per cent) or dry 
powder as dressing for wounds. Sometimes used internally for 




FIG.85. HOLDING HORSE'S 
HEAD FOR DRENCHING. 
{M. H. R.) 

Note cloth loop under 
nose-band. 



COMMON MEDICINES. 241 

colts and calves for diarrhoea. Soluble in 26 parts cold water; 
in 3 parts boiling water or in 6 parts alcohol. 

Doses. — Colts and calves take 10 to 30 grains in syrup three 
times a day. Not irritating. 

As an outward application for wounds and sores it may be 
mixed with half its bulk of iodoform. 

Chloroform..— Stimulant, anti-spasmodic, anodyne, anaesthetic. 
Its stimulating effect resembles that of alcohol, but is less 
pronounced and more temporary. Applied externally, it evap- 
orates rapidly and is cooling; but is very irritating when applied 
externally and confined. 

Chloroform is very useful in colic and other spasmodic con- 
ditions, given internally with 6 to 8 times its bulk of raw linseed 
oil and well shaken. 

It is very slightly soluble in water but dissolves freely in 
alcohol, ether or turpentine. Very useful in spasmodic colic 
given with oil as above. 

Doses. — Horses and cattle take 4 to 8 drams repeated every 
two or three hours, if necessary till the patient staggers. Sheep 
and hogs take ]/\ to 1 dram repeated frequently as for horses and 
cattle. 

Carbolic acid. — Deodorizes, and kills germs. In strong solu- 
tions it is irritant, caustic and anaesthetic. Internally it is at first 
stimulating and afterwards depressing and narcotic. Poisonous 
in sufficient dose and strength. It is used more commonly for 
external purposes, especially as a germicide, in 2 to 5 per cent, 
solutions. Dilute solutions kill external parasites. It makes a 
good wash for foul sores and wounds from which the pus does 
not drain freely. Valuable in the treatment of ringworms used 
as 10 to 15 per cent, solution in glycerine or linseed oil. 

Carbolic acid is very commonly used as an antiseptic dress- 
ing in surgical work (2 to 5 per cent, solutions). It is usually 
dispensed from the drug stores as a 95 per cent, solution of the 
crystalized drug. 

Dose. — Horses and cattle take internally ]/\ to 1 dram ; sheep 
and hogs take 10 to 30 drops, administered per mouth as a drench 
and greatly diluted. It has been used with apparently good re- 
sults for both after treatment, and prevention of infectious abor- 
tions in cattle, given either hypodermically, or injected into the 
jugular vein, or given as a drench per mouth. 



242 COMMON MEDICINES. 

Iodoform. — Used generally for external and local application. 
Is a deodorizer and prevents infection of wounds. A local anti- 
septic. Very useful as a dressing for wounds, especially after 
they have commenced to heal. May be used alone or mixed with 
twice its bulk of powdered boracic acid and dusted over the 
wound surface. 

Common lime. — Is irritant, neutralizes acids, and astringent. 
Saturated solution which is very dilute, is useful in diarrheas and 
indigestions of young animals and may be given with milk quite 
freely. Carron oil (lime Avater and linseed oil in equal parts) 
is a very useful application for burns. Whitewashing is a nice 
and satisfactory method of disinfecting and cleaning up out- 
buildings. 

Doses. — Horses and cattle take I to 2 drams of the quick 
lime ; sheep T 4 to J /o drams, very greatly diluted in all cases. 



LECTURE LVIII. 
COMMON MEDICINES. 

Raw linseed oil. — Is used in veterinary practice to dilute 
stronger medicines in making liniments and various applications 
for external use and internally as a laxative or cathartic, de- 
pending upon the dose used. Very safe and but slightly irritat- 
ing. Good for either horses, cattle, sheep or swine. 

Doses. — Cattle take 2 to 4 pints ; horses, 1 to 3 pints ; sheep 
and hogs take % to 1 pint. 

Rectal injections of warm water may be given after the 
oil and it is desirable, if there is sufficient time, to prepare horses 
by several warm bran mashes before giving the oil. 

Corrosive sublimate. — Is a caustic and irritant poison. Used 
externally as a caustic and antiseptic. Stronger solutions, and 
ointments produce very severe blisters and frequently destroy the 
hair follicles. 

Chief use, as a germicide. Cheap and very satisfactory 
for disinfecting buildings and other purposes where large quanti- 
ties must be used. Dilute solution destroys lice and itch mites in 
the proportion of 15 grains to the pint of water. For antiseptic 
and disinfecting purposes it may be used 4 to 7 grains to the pint. 

Epsom salts. — A saline cathartic, causes a large secretion of 
fluids from the intestinal walls, thus rendering the bowel contents 
very fluid. Very satisfactory as a laxative or cathartic for cattle 
and sheep, not so good for horses. Useful in small doses given 
to horses in feverish conditions. Very soluble in water, will dis- 
solve in its own weight of warm water, insoluble in alcohol. 

Doses. — Cattle take for cathartic 1 to 3 pounds ; sheep and 
hogs take %. to T /i a pound, Frequently desirable to add Y\ to V2 
these doses of common salt and 1-6 the total weight of powdered 
ginger, and give as a drench. It is better to give quite dilute 
drenches ; e. g., the cow's dose should be dissolved in 2 to 3 pints 
of water and the others in proportion. 

Sodium chloride (common salt) . — An essential article of food, 
restorative and antiseptic. Very large doses are cathartic and 
more or less irritating. For grown cattle and sheep in good 



244 



COMMON MEDICINES. 



strength salt is a very useful cathartic. More commonly combined 
with other saline cathartics. Useful as a throat wash in certain 
sore_ throats, diluted to 5 per cent, solutions in water. 

Sodium hyposulphite and sodium sulphite. — Antiseptic and 
deodorant especially valuable for internal administration, to check 
fermentation and septic processes in the stomach and intestines 
and therefore valuable in conditions of diarrhea, indigestions, and 
hoven or bloat. Also useful in small doses to control feverish 
conditions. Both the sulphite and the hyposulphite are readily 
soluble in water. 




FIG. 86. TO THROW CATTLE. (M. H. R.) 

Pull straight back on the rope. 



Doses. — Horses and cattle take of the sulphite 8 to 12 oz. ; 
sheep and swine take 4 to 8 drams. The doses of hyposulphite are 
much smaller — about half as large as for the sulphite. These 
doses are to be given as drenches, well diluted and repeated three 
times daily. Smaller doses may be given every hour in cases of 
bloat. 

Saltpetre (nitrate of potash). — Mildly antiseptic, and has 
slight cathartic effect. It is diuretic, increases the secretion from 
skin and bronchial tubes ; is alterative and febrifuge. Useful in 



COMMON MEDICINES. 24L- 

the treatment of all classes of animals. Very useful for external 
cooling effect when dissolved in water with sal ammonia. For 
alterative and febrifuge effect it is given in about half the doses- 
that are given to stimulate the kidneys. 

Saltpetre is very soluble in water. 

Doses. — Cattle and horses for diuretic effect, / 2 to 2 oz. ;. 
sheep and swine, ^ to 2 drams. These doses are given in the 
drinking water or as a drench. Not caustic. 

Sweet spirits nitre. — Is a stimulant much like alcohol or 
ether; is antispasmodic and increases the excretion from skin,, 
lungs and kidneys. Very large doses are narcotic. Very useful 
in cases of spasmodic colic and tympanites, and is a convenient 
heart stimulant. 

Doses. — As a stimulant and antispasmodic horses and cattle 
take 2 to 4 oz. ; hogs 2 to 4 drams. It is decomposed by water 
and should not be mixed with other medicines until just before 
giving. It is given as a drench with water or in syrup. As an anti 
spasmodic it may be given to advantage with either opium or 
chloral hydrate. 

Oil of turpentine (common turpentine). — Is stimulant, anti- 
septic, and destroys parasites, both external and internal. It is 
readily absorbed when swallowed and is excreted by the lungs, 
skin and kidneys. Over doses irritate the mucous membrane of 
these organs. For medicinal purposes it is used in indigestion, 
certain conditions of diarrhea and tympanites (bloating) ; a very- 
useful medicine in these conditions and one that is usually at 
hand. It is slightly soluble in water, quite soluble in ether or 
alcohol or linseed oil. 

Doses. — Horses and cattle, as stimulant and antispasmodic,, 
taking 1 to 2 oz. ; for stimulating effect upon mucous membranes 
of the bronchial tubes, skin or kidneys. The dose for sheep and 
swine should be about 1-6 of these quantities. 

Opium. — Medicinal doses relieve pain and spasmodic con- 
ditions, reduce congestion and inflammation ; check intestinal se- 
. cretion and peristaltic movements ; and with some animals produce 
sleep. The various preparations of opium are used in medicine 
for the purpose of relieving pain, perhaps more than any other 
agent. Opium is a typical anodyne (pain reliever), but there are 
very many conditions that arise in practice under which it should 
never be given, which it is not thought practical to explain in this- 



246 COMMON MEDICINES. 

short lecture further than that the person who is giving opium 
to any domestic animal must not forget that it checks intestinal 
secretion and peristaltic movements and in this way may cause 
constipation at just the time when the reverse condition is desired. 

Morphine is an alkaloid of opium and shows all the essential 
physiological properties of the crude drug. Cattle and sheep take 
very large doses. Morphine and various preparations of opium 
are frequently employed with advantage in spasmodic colic and 
may be combined with stimulants and anodynes like ether, sweet 
spirits nitre or chloral hydrate. It is usually advisable to give a 
mild laxative soon after the opium operates. 

Dose. Horses. Cattle. Sheep. Hogs. 

Crude opium 1-2 drs. 2-4 drs. 10-40 grs. 10-40 grs. 

Morphine sulphate. 3-5 grs. 3-8 grs. l / 2 - 2 grs. ]/ 2 - 2 grs. 
Tincture opium 

(Laudanum) 1-2 ozs. 1-3 ozs. 2- 6 drs. 2- 6 drs. 

The tincture should be diluted with water or syrup the same 
as for alcohol. 



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DEC 2~ 1903 



